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DESK. 

NOV  6     1990 
DEC  1  1  1990 

JAN  I  9  1991 
IFEB  1  9  1991 

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OCT0  3?no? 


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FIELD    NOTES 


ON 


APPLE  CULTURE 


L.  h::2^bailey,  jr. 


ILLUSTRATBD 


NEW  YORK: 
ORANGE  JUDD   COMPANY, 

62  &  54  LAFAYETTE  PLACE. 
1906 


:^\y 


Entered,  accoraint  to  Act  of  Congrees,  in  the  year  1886,  by 

L.  H.  BAILEY,  Jr., 
I.U  the  OflBce  of  the  Librarian  of  Congress,  at  Waahington. 


To 


Mm  c^^ihor, 


THE  RESULTS  OP  WHOSE  TEACHINCjS 


ARE  EMBODIED  IN  THESE  PAGE3 


These  notes  have  been  prepared  with  a  view  to  af- 
ford a  guide  to  those  who  would  engage  in  apple 
culture.  The  teachings  here  conveyed  are  founded 
upon  successful  practice.  The  author  has  aimed  to  so 
guide  the  novice  that  mistakes  may  be  avoided  in  the 
endeavor  to  reach  p/ofitable  results.  Some  of  the  pa- 
pers have  appeared  in  the  ''American  Cultivator" 
and  elsewhere. 

L.  H.  B.,  Ju. 
Michigan  Agricultural  College,  October,  1886. 


CONTENTS. 

Chapter  I. 
Soil,  Location  and  Windbreaks 9 

Chapter  II. 
Setting  the  Trees. — Distances 13 

Chapter  III. 
When  to  Plant 16 

Chapter  IV. 
Selecting  Varieties  of  Fruit 18 

Chapter  V. 
Cheap  Fruit  Trees 22 

Chapter  VI. 
How  to  Plow  an  Orchard. — Orchard  Tillage 24 

Chapter  VII. 
Manures  for  the  Orchard  _ 28 

Chapter  VIII. 
Sod  in  the  Orchard 31 

Chapter  IX.         » 
General  Notes  on  Pruning. — Forms  of  Trees. 33 

Chapter  X. 
High  or  Low  Heads  for  Apple  Trees  _ 37 

Chapter  XI. 
Training  and  Repairing  Orchard  Trees. — Scraping. 39 

Chapter  XII. 
General  Notes  on  Grafting 45 

Chapter  XIII. 
Top-Grafting  Old  Apple  Trees 51 

Chapter  XIV. 
Longevity  of  Apple  Trees  - .54 

Chapter  XV. 
Picking  Fruit.— When  to  Pick 55 

(7) 


8  CONTENTS. 

Chapter  XVI. 
Packing  Apples 59 

Chapter  XVII. 
Profits  in  Apple  Culture.— Shall  We  Plant  More  Orchards? 

—Losses  from  Theft 66 

Chapter  XVIII. 
Winter  Preparations -  - 73 

Chapter  XIX. 
Injurious  Insects - - - 75 

Chapter  XX. 
Borers   ..- 77 

Chapter  XXI. 
CodlinMoth 85 


ILLUSTEATIONS. 

A  Model  Apple  Tree Frontispiece. 

Figure  1.— Tree-Placing  Implement. 15 

Figure  2. — Shoiilder  of  a  Limb 34 

Figure  3. — A  Short  Ladder 35 

Figure  4. — Twisted  Branches  in  a  Crotch 41 

Figure  5. — Living  Brace  in  a  Crotch 43 

Figure  6. — Tree  Prepared  for  Top-Grafting 47 

Figure  7.— Grafting  Knife 48 

Figure  8.— Graf  ting  Mallet - - 49 

Figure  9. — A  Scion !.   50 

Figure  10. — Stub  with  Scions  in  Place 50 

Figure  11. — Picker 56 

Figure  12.— Picker ..-  56 

Figure  13.— Hook 56 

Figure  14. — Beetle  of  Round-headed  Borer 77 

Figure  15. — The  Round-headed  Borer 77 

Figure  16. — Saperda  Cretata 82 

Figure  17.— The  Beetle -..  83 

Figure  18.— Flat-Headed  Borer 83 

Figure  19.— Codlin  Moth 85 


FIELD  NOTES  ON  APPLE  CULTURE. 


CHAPTER   I. 

SOIL,  LOCATION  AND  WINDBREAKS. 

As  a  rule,  rather  light  or  loamy  soils,  with  deep  and 
porous  subsoils,  are  best  adapted  to  apple  growing.  Nat- 
ural drainage  is  imperative.  Apple  trees  are  impatient 
of  wet  feet.  Cold  and  backward  soils,  even  if  well  under- 
drained,  do  not  give  good  results.  I  am  not  to  be  under- 
stood as  discouraging  tile  drainage,  but  I  prefer  a  soil, 
naturally  well  drained  to  one  tile-drained.  Naturally 
drained  soils  are  warm  soils.  I  have  in  mind  a  contrast 
between  two  prominent  Michigan  orchards.  Both  were 
planted  about  twenty-five  years  ago,  and  with  essentially 
the  same  varieties.  One  stands  upon  a  rather  poor  sand, 
which  possesses  no  decided  subsoil  higher  than  ten  or 
twelve  feet  below  the  surface.  The  orchard  has  received 
good  culture,  but  no  underdraining,  and  the  trees  are 
to-day  vigorous  and  productive.  The  other  orchard  stands 
upon  a  heavy  loam,  with  a  clay  or  hard-pan  subsoil  within 
two  feet  of  the  surface.  The  land  has  been  remarkably 
(9) 


10  FIELD   NOTES   ON  APPLE   CULTURE, 

well  underd rained,  and  the  trees  have  received  good  cul- 
ture and  an  uncommon  attention  towards  cultural  experi- 
ments. Nevertheless,  this  orchard  has  never  borne  a 
good  crop,  and  many  of  the  trees  have  been  winter-killed. 

High  lands  are  preferable  for  orchards,  from  the  fact 
that  they  enforce  atmospheric  drainage.  Cold  air  is 
heavier  than  warm  air,  and  it  settles  on  the  lowest  grouuds. 
All  have  noticed  the  warmer  air  on  the  hills,  when  riding 
over  a  hi ' ly  country  at  night.  Crops  upon  high  or  sloping 
lands  escape  frost,  while  those  in  the  valleys  are  seriously 
injured.  In  still  winter  weather  I  have  known  a  differ- 
ence of  ten  degrees  between  contiguous  places  with  a 
difference  of  thirty  feet  in  altitude. 

The  aspect  of  the  ground  is  sometimes  important.  If 
the  locality  is  especially  liable  to  late  spring  frosts  a 
northern  slope  is  to  be  preferred,  since  the  trees  will  not 
start  very  early  in  the  spring.  Near  large  bodies  of  water, 
and  in  other  places  where  there  is  no  danger  from  late 
frosts,  a  southern  slope  is  probably  to  be  desired.  Other 
things  being  equal,  the  southern  slope  will  produce  the 
highest  colored  and  finest  flavored  apples.  The  same  is 
true  of  a  sandy  soil. 

There  are  many  idle  hillsides  which  would  bear  good 
apple  orchards.  New  England  is  especially  rich  in  such 
sites.  As  we  approach  the  inviting,  intensive  husbandry 
of  the  future,  we  must  begin  to  appreciate  the  value  of 
many  of  our  waste  lands  for  orcharding  purposes. 

WINDBEEAKS  FOR  ORCHARDS. 

During  a  still,  cold  snap  in  a  fruit-growing  locality, 
when  the  mercury  sinks  to  twenty  beloAV  zero,  it  is  the 


SOIL,   LOCATION  AKD  WINDBREAKS.  11 

common  remark,  '*  There  is  no  wind  and  the  peach  buds 
will  not  suffer."  If  the  thermometer  registers  a  temper- 
ature ten  or  fifteen  degrees  higher  and  a  smart  wind  is 
blowing,  everyone  feels  discouraged  or  uncertain.  It  is 
one  of  tlie  commonest  of  observations  that  a  wind  in- 
creases cold.  I  recall  a  farmer  who  had  an  old  and  poorly 
made  house,  but  Avho  boasted  that  because  he  was  well 
protected  by  trees  he  suffered  less  than  a  neighbor  on 
a  barren  field,  who  had  a  new  and  tight  house. 

High  winds  are  in  several  ways  injurious  to  the  orchard. 
It  is  a  common  and  correct  teaching  that  orchards  should 
be  planted  on  high  land  as  a  matter  of  winter  protection, 
but,  as  such  places  are  invariably  windy,  the  idea  has  ob- 
tained that  wind  is  in  some  manner  a  protection.  The 
advantages  to  be  obtained  from  high  places  are  two  :  The 
\  soil,  being  commonly  well  drained,  is  warm  ;  the  atmos- 
pheric drainage  is  good.  If  we  can  secure  the  congenial 
soil  and  the  atmospheric  drainage  at  the  same  time  that 
we  avoid  high  winds,  we  secure  the  greatest  requisite  in 
orchard  culture. 

A  high  wind  shortly  before  apples  are  ripe  will  shake  off 
and  bruise  half  or  more  of  them  in  unprotected  orchards. 
I  have  frequently  known  promising  apj)le  crops  to  be 
ruined  in  this  manner.  It  frequently  occurs  that  the 
trees  are  badly  broken  at  the  same  time.  An  ice  storm, 
followed  by  wind,  is  exceedingly  destructive.  Young  trees 
set  in  an  exposed  situation  are  always  being  blown  askew, 
and  they  must  be  repeatedly  staked  and  tied.  Many 
growers  recognize  this  fact,  and  plant  corn  among  young 
trees,  but  as  soon  as  the  corn  is  removed  the  unprotected 
trees  are  wrenched  Jby  Autumn  winds.     I  frequently  see 


12  FIELD  NOTES  OK  APPLE  CULTURE. 

old  orchards  whose  crooked  trunks  record  early  damages 
from  winds. 

A  good  windbreak  is  the  surest  protection  to  an  orchard. 
A  windbreak  may  be  made  too  dense,  however.  A  wall- 
like  hedge  of  evergreens  is  apt  to  obstruct  atmospheric 
drainage.  A  double  or  triple  row  of  deciduous  trees, 
with  a  few  spruces  intermixed,  appears  to  be  the  most 
desirable.  The  best  protected  orchard  I  ever  saw  was  one 
planted  behind  another  orchard.  The  exposed  orchard 
suffered  much,  however.  If  the  hard  winds  are  mostly 
from  one  direction  the  windbreak  may  not  be  needed  on 
all  sides. 


SETTIisG  THE  TREES. — DISTANCES.  13 

CHAPTER    II. 

SETTING    THE    TREES. -DISTANCES. 

Care  in  setting  the  trees,  as  in  all  other  operations  in 
the  orchard,  is  imperative.  The  shiftless  orchardist  can- 
not succeed.  Thorough-going  methods  alone  bring  profit. 
Trees  should  make  a  good  growth  the  first  season.  If 
they  are  weak  during  the  first  summer  they  will  likely 
become  the  prey  of  borers,  or  they  will  dwindle  for  a 
few  years  and  die.  The  first  requisite  in  setting  is  to 
trim  smoothly  all  broken  roots.  It  is  customary  to  cut 
off  the  ends  of  the  roots  iu  a  sloping  manner  from  the 
inside  outwards,  so  that  the  wound  will  rest  firmly  upon 
the  soil.  It  is  not  necessary  that  a  tree  possess  many 
fine  roots  when  transplanted.  Such  roots  are  very  liable 
to  be  broken  in  transportation,  and  when  exposed  they 
soon  dry  up  beyond  recovery.  If  a  tree  has  a  quan- 
tity of  clean,  bright  roots  the  size  of  a  lead  pencil  or 
larger,  it  ought  to  grow  luxuriantly  if  other  conditions 
are  satisfactory.  I  am  not  sure  but  such  trees  do  better 
than  those  with  an  abundance  of  fine  roots,  from  the  fact 
that  the  earth  can  be  packed  more  snugly  about  the  roots. 
I  am  not  convinced  that  trees  from  a  local  nursery  are 
preferable  to  those  from  a  distance,  unless  one  desires  to 
remove  a  few  trees  with  a  ball  of  earth  attached.  With 
our  'rapid  transportation  trees  can  be  sent  a  great  dis- 
tance without  injury.  To  be  sure,  in  the  case  of  tender 
plants,  such  as  peach  trees,  I  should  prefer  trees  grown 
in  my  own  latitude.     Some  years  ago,  before  railroads 


14  FIELD   NOTES   ON   APPLE   CULTURE. 

had  reached  Western  Michigan,  a  box  of  apple  trees  was 
received  from  an  Eastern  nursery  in  very  poor  condition 
— so  poor,  in  fact,  that  the  roots  were  withered  and  the 
trees  given  up  for  lost.  By  way  of  experiment,  however, 
they  were  thrown  into  a  "cat-hole"  and  allowed  to  re- 
main for  several  days.  Signs  of  life  began  to  return  and 
the  trees  were  set  among  the  logs  in  a  clearing.  Nearly 
all  of  them  lived  and  flourished. 

The  soil  in  which  the  tree  is  set  should  bo  well  pulver- 
ized. It  is  desirable  to  dig  a  hole  three  feet  in  diamater, 
unless  the  soil  is  in  excellent  condition,  and  then  pulver- 
ize the  bottom  with  the  spade.  Never  make  the  mistake 
of  making  the  hole  smaller  than  the  expanse  of  the  roots. 
Let  all  the  roots  take  their  natural  direction  ;  never 
crowd  them.  Set  the  tree  about  as  deep  as  it  stood  in 
the  nursery.  It  is  not  at  all  important  that  it  should 
face  the  same  point  of  the  compass  that  it  did  in  the 
nursery  row.  Work  the  earth  about  the  roots  with  the 
fingers,  and  be  sure  that  you  leave  no  air  space  under- 
neath the  roots.  There  is  no  implement  which  can  do 
the  work  of  the  fingers  in  setting  trees.  When  the  roots 
are  covered,  grasp  the  body  of  the  tree  and  move  it  very 
slightly  up  and  down  two  or  three  times  to  further  pack 
the  earth  about  the  roots.  Never  use  stones,  clods  or 
sods  to  fill  in  with.  When  the  hole  is  filled,  stamp  tlie 
earth  firmly  about  the  tree. 

DISTANCE  APART. 

Apple  trees  demand  an  abundance  of  room.  For  the 
larger  sorts,  as  Tompkins  King,  Baldwin,  Spy,  and 
Greening,  forty  feet  apart  each  way  is  none  too  much.' 


SETTING   THE   TREES. — DISTAKCES.  15 

I  do  not  like  the  practice  of  setting  peach  and  other 
trees  between  the  apple  trees,  because  they  are  seldom 
removed  when  they  should  be.  Most  people  who  begin 
growing  small  fruits  in  an  orchard  continue  the  prac- 
tice too  long.  It  has  been  my  experience  that  it  is  safer 
to  grow  annual  crops  in  the  orchard  than  to  grow  other 
fruits.    We  are  obliged  to  remove  the  annual  crops. 

If  the  orchard  is  to  be  of  considerable  size,  I  should 
survey  it  and  drive  a  stake  for  every  tree.  If  I  did  not 
survey  it,  I  should  measure  around  the  sides  and  sight 


TREE-PLACING  IMPLEMENT. 


across.  I  use  an  implement,  represented  in  figure  1,  for 
locating  the  tree  in  the  exact  place  of  the  stake.  It  is 
held  firmly  in  the  ground  by  the  three  wooden  legs,  the 
notch  at  a  touching  the  stake.  The  arm,  a  b,  is  then 
turned  back  in  the  position  h  c,  and  the  hole  dug,  after 
which  the  arm  is  turned  down  and  the  tree  adjusted  to 
the  notch.  An  old  spade  handle  is  used  as  a  handle,  and 
if  it  is  inserted  so  that  the  implement  will  balance  in  the 
hand,  when  the  arm  is  turned  back,  one  can  push  the 
legs  firmly  into  the  ground  with  a  single  thrust.  This 
implement  (fig.  1)  can  be  made  out  of  light  pine,  with  a 
length  from  5  to  c  of  two  and  a  half  feet  and  twelve 
inches  wide  across  the  end,  c,  and  it  need  not  weigh 
above  six  pounds. 


16  FIELD  NOTES  Oif  APPLE  CULTURE.  ' 

CHAPTER    III. 

WHEN  TO  PLANT. 

As  a  rule,  fall  planting  is  preferable  to  spring  plant- 
ing. The  particular  advantages  of  fall  planting  are  two  : 
the  tree  becomes  somewhat  established  in  the  soil  before 
spring  opens  ;  there  is  more  leisure  in  the  fall. 

It  is  well  known  to  nurserymen  that  cuttings  of  fruit 
or  ornamental  plants  if  set  in  the  fall  become  callused  on 
the  wounded  surfaces,  and  often  send  out  small  roots 
before  freezing  weather  sets  in.  The  same  is  true  of 
fruit  trees.  A  pear  tree  which  is  set  as  soon  as  the 
leaves  fall  will  make  rootlets  in  four  or  five  weeks,  if  the 
weather  is  open.  There  is  nearly  always  a  beginning  of 
the  healing  process  as  soon  as  trees  are  planted  in  the 
fall.  This  healing,  even  though  it  be  small,  is  a  direct 
and  important  gain  over  spring  planting.  The  tree  also 
becomes  thoroughly  fixed  in  its  place,  the  soil  settles 
firmly  about  its  roots,  and  it  is  ready  to  take  advantage 
of  the  first  opening  of  spring.  The  matter  of  greater 
leisure  for  planting  in  the  fall  is  not  an  unimportant  one. 
Trees  should  not  be  planted  hastily.  Time  should  be 
taken  to  pulverize  the  soil  and  to  straighten  each  root. 
In  the  hurry  of  spring  work  this  thorough  planting  is 
often  neglected,  and  many  times  the  trees  are  not  set  as 
early  as  they  should  be. 

To  insure  success  with  fall  planting  the  ground  must 
be  well  drained  and  thoroughly  prepared,  and  much  care 
must  be  exercised  in  setting  the  trees.    A  poorly  drained 


WHEX  TO   PLANT.  17 

Jd  is  never  fit  for  apple  trees,  and  it  is  especially  unfit 
for  fail  planting.  Trees  must  be  set  so  firmly  that  winds 
will  not  rack  and  twist  them.  In  severe  climates  fall 
planting  is  often  hazardous,  although  much  care  may  be 
taken.  The  climates  of  Massachusetts  and  Lower  Mich- 
igan are  not  usually  too  severe  for  fall  planting.  It  k- 
only  in  much  exposed  places  in  our  Northern  States  that 
it  is  to  be  practised  with  caution.  We  might  say,  in  a 
general  way,  that  north  of  Boston  or  Chicago  fall  plant  • 
ing  may  be  regarded  as  hazardous. 

Spring  planting  is  to  ue  recommended  in  severe  cli« 
mates  and  in  exposed  places,  and  especially  is  it  safest  in 
stiff  and  lieavy  soils  where  the  effect  of  freezing  and 
thawing  is  disastrous  to  fall  planted  trees,  and  where  the 
hardening  of  the  soil  prevents  their  roots  from  starting 
readily  in  cr.rly  spring.  Trees  which  are  planted  in  the 
spring  should  be  set  as  soon  as  the  ground  is  dry  enough 
to  be  worked. 


18  FIELD  NOTES  ON  APPLE  CULTURE, 

CHAPTER    IV. 

SELECTING  VARIETIES  OF  FRUIT. 

Whether  an  orchard  returns  a  profit  to  the  owner  will 
depend  in  a  great  measure  upon  the  kinds  of  varieties, 
and  the  number  of  each,  which  it  contains.  There  is 
probably  no  greater  mistake  among  orchardists  than  that 
of  neglecting  to  give  earnest  thought  to  the  varieties  to 
be  planted.  '  Care  in  the  selection  of  varieties  is  the  first 
stone  in  the  foundation,  the  first  step  to  success.  It  is 
to  the  orchardist  what  the  selection  of  the  breed  is  to 
the  stock-raiser.  . 

There  are  several  things  to  be  taken  into  consideration 
in  the  selection  of  varieties.  For  profit,  a  fruit  must 
combine  these  four  qualities  and  preferably  in  the  order 
named  :  hardiness,  productiveness,  beauty  and  good 
quality.  These  terms  are  all  relative.  An  apple  which 
is  hardy  in  one  part  of  the  country  may  not  be  hardy  in 
another  part ;  the  same  is  true  of  productiveness,  and  to 
a  less  extent  of  beauty  and  quality  also.  Hence,  the 
subject  of  the  selection  of  varieties  must  be  a  local  ques- 
tion. The  same  fruit  may  not  succeed  in  different  parts 
of  the  same  State.  I  have  known  good  Sour  Boughs  to 
be  raised  successfully  only  sixteen  miles  from  a  place 
where  they  grew  small,  black  and  gnarly.  If  the  grower 
has  not  had  personal  experience  in  his  locality,  the  safest 
plan  to  pursue  is  to  visit  all  the  growers  in  the  immedi- 
ate vicinity,  and  to  ascertain  the  most  satisfactory  varie- 
ties. Ask  what  fruits  endure  extremes  of  weather  beat, 
which  ones  bear  the  best,  which  are  handsomest  and  best 


SELECTING    VARIETIES   OF   FRUIT.  19 

in  quality,  and  which  ones  keep  the  longest.  It  is  not 
necessary  that  experienced  orchardists  live  in  the  neigh- 
borhood in  order  that  this  information  may  be  secured. 
Select  several  of  the  most  promising  varieties  grown  by 
the  neighbors,  and  as  an  additional  guide  write  to  the 
leading  dealers  of  the  market  to  which  you  will  ship, 
asking  what  ones  of  your  list  will  best  meet  the  demand 
in  the  market.  Experienced  dealers'  judgments  are  in- 
valuable in  this  matter,  but  they  do  not,  of  course,  cover 
the  subjects  of  hardiness  and  productiveness.  What 
dealers  can  sell  best  is  not  always  what  growers  can  raise 
best.  Some  apples  are  nearly  cosmopolitan.  Such,  for 
instance,  is  the  Baldwin,  which  is  a  superior  variety  from 
Maine  to  Michigan. 

The  varieties  once  decided  upon,  plant  enoiigli  of  each 
variety  to  pay  for  the  handling  and  hauling.  Fifty  bar- 
rels of  Gravensteins  are  worth  as  much  as  seventy-five 
barrels  of  mixed  apples  of  similar  size.  Plant  each  vari- 
ety by  itself.  It  is  a  most  exasperating  operation  to  be 
obliged  to  pi-k  Baldwins  first  in  one  corner  of  the  orchard 
and  then  in  another.  An  orchard  of  five  hundred  trees, 
if  set  fur  profit,  should  not  contain  more  than  five  or  six 
varieties,  ;?.nd,  on  an  average,  four  of  them  should  be 
winter  apples.  Three  varieties  are  preferable  to  ten,  I 
recall  a  story  of  a  prominent  poniologist,  who,  when 
asked  what  varieties  he  would  plant  in  an  apple  orchard 
of  one  thousand  trees,  replied,  "Nine  hundred  and 
ninety-nine  Baldwins."  When  asked  what  the  other 
tree  would  be,  he  replied,  "I  should  make  that  a  Bald- 
win, too." 

Hardiness  is  preeminently  a  relative  term.     The  same 


20  FIELD   NOTES   Oi<    Ai'l'LE   CULTURE. 

variety  will  prove  hardier  upon  a  gravelly  eminence  than 
on  rich  bottom  lands.  This  statement  is  true  of  the 
Eastern  States,  at  least.  Of  late,  B.  F.  Johnson  and 
Professor  Burrill,  of  Champaign,  Illinois,  contend  that 
the  lower  lands  are  generally  preferable  for  apple  growing 
on  the  prairies.  On  account  of  the  pinching  drouths  the 
trees  upon  the  higher  lands  cease  growing  by  midsum- 
mer, but  with  the  advent  of  fall  rains  they  start  into  a 
second  growth  which  does  not  mature,  and,  as  a  conse- 
quence, the  trees  are  winter-killed.  On  the  lower  and 
raoister  lands  the  growth  is  said  to  be  continuous  and 
the  wood  matures  thoroughly.  In  all  cases,  however,  it 
is  important  to  bear  in  mind  the  fact  that  hardiness  de- 
pends as  much  upon  soil  and  location  as  upon  varieties. 

Among  the  best  market  apples  are  the  following  : 
^  For  Summer  and  Fall:  Early  Harvest,  Sweet  Bough 
(especially  in  New  England),  Red  Astrachan,  Williams' 
Favorite  (eastward),  Oldenburgh  {Duchess  of  Olden- 
hurgh),  Alexander,  St.  Lawrence,  Gravenstein,  Maiden's 
Blush,  Chenango  {Chenango  Strawberry),  Twenty  Ounce, 
Shiawassee  (early  winter),  Ohio  Nonpareil,  Lowell,  Porter, 
Hawthornden,  Jersey  Sweet,  Fameuse  {Snow  Apple). 

For  Winter:  Baldwin,  Northern  Spy,  Rliode  Island 
Greening,  Ben  Davis  (West  and  South),  Talman  Sweet, 
Red  Canada,  Tompkins  King,  Grimes'  Golden,  Stark, 
Golden  Russet,  Roxbury  Russet  (eastward),  Hubbards- 
ton  (early  winter),  Fallawater,  Smith's  Cider,  Jonathan, 
Nickajack  (South),  Vandevere,  Peck's  Pleasant,  Limber 
Twig. 

The  following  have  a  reputation  for  home  use  : 

For  Summer  and  Fall :    Primate,  Sweet  Bough,  Early 


BELECTIXQ    VARIETIES    OF    FRUIT.  21 

Joe,  Summer  Rose,  Full  Pippin,  Fameuse,  Garden  Eoyal, 
Hawley,  Keswick  Codlin,  Shiawassee,  Alexander,  Jersey 
Sweet,  English  Sweet,  Dyer,  Mother. 

For  Winter:  Melon,  Belmont,  Swaar,  Esopus  Spitz- 
enburgh,  Jonathan,  Hubbardston,  Lady  Apple,  Yellow 
Newtown  Pippin,  Yellow  Bellefleur,  Northern  Spy, 
Wagener,  Rhode  Island  Greening,  Pomme  Gris. 

Numerous  improved  varieties  of  Siberian  crab  apples 
are  becoming  popular,  especially  for  our  colder  climates. 
The  best  known  crabs  are  Transcendent,  Hyslop  and 
"Whitney.  The  Russian  apples  are  not  yet  sufficiently 
known  to  be  recommended. 


22  riELD  :notes  ox  apple  cultuhe. 

CHAPTER    V. 

CHEAP  FRUIT  TREES. 

It  is  a  common  supposition  that  second-class  fruit 
trees,  if  healthy  and  clean,  make  as  good  orchards  as 
first-class  trees.  I  once  knew  a  grower  to  put  the  matter 
in  this  way  :  "Second-class  trees  have  as  good  roots  as 
any,  and  I  can  grow  the  tops  to  suit  myself.  They  will 
cost  me  a  third  or  more  less  than  first-class  trees  of  the 
same  varieties,  and  I  believe  it  will  pay  me  to  buy  them." 
He  did  buy  them  and  set  them.  They  were  peach  trees, 
and  as  good  as  the  ordinary  run  of  second-class  trees. 
Most  of  the  trees  lived.  There  were  some  two  hun- 
dred of  them.  At  the  end  of  two  years  most  of  them 
were  dead  or  dying.  Borers  had  been  imported  with 
them  from  the  nursery.  The  tops  of  most  of  the  trees 
were  weak  or  crooked,  and  many  had  to  be  cut  back 
to  the  bud.  The  trees  were  given  good  culture, 
though  not  the  best.  About  the  third  year  after  the 
trees  were  set  I  planted  an  orchard  on  the  same 
ground,  and  of  all  the  former  trees  but  one  solitary 
individual  remained.  This  is  a  case  of  an  experiment 
with  cheap  trees.  It  is  probably  an  extreme  case,  but 
it  does  not  convey  too  strong  a  lesson.  I  doubt  if  it 
ever  pays  to  buy  second-class  trees.  They  may  grow 
readily,  but  they  do  not  make  straight  and  clean  trunks. 
I  am  aware  that  some  nurserymen  advertise  their  second- 
class  stock  to  be  just  like  their  first-class  stock,  only 
smaller.  I  have  never  seen  such  second-class  trees,  how- 
ever.     Of  course  the  nurseryman  cannot  be  particular 


CHEAP   FKUIT  TREES.  23 

about  each  individual  tree  of  his  lower  grades.  The 
loAver  grades  contain  his  odds  and  ends — trees  with 
gnarly  trunks,  those  whose  tops  have  been  broken  and 
sprouts  trained  up  in  tlieir  places,  those  with  one-sided 
roots  and  weak  growth.  The  orchardist  cannot  afford  to 
buy  them.  They  prove  expensive  in  the  end.  It  requires 
too  much  time  atid  trouble  to  train  them.  In  the 
case  above  mentioned  the  tops  had  to  be  cut  from  about 
half  the  trees,  and  a  sprout  encouraged.  Usually  more 
than  one  sprout  started,  and  the  unnecessary  ones  had  to 
be  rubbed  off  several  times  during  the  season.  There  is 
usually  a  crook  where  the  sprout  starts,  and  the  tree  does 
not  always  outgrow  it  entirely.  In  some  cases  all  the 
sprouts  started  below  the  bud,  and  a  seedling  was  the 
result. 

I  must  not  be  understood  as  recommending  large  and 
stout  trees.  I  only  contend  for  good  trees.  A  thrifty 
peach  tree  one  year  from  the  bud  is  old  enough  for  plant- 
ing. It  is  much  better  than  one  three  years  old.  A 
vigorous  apple  tree  two  years  from  the  graft  or  bud  is 
preferable  to  one  twice  as  old.  It  should  be  demanded, 
however,  that  a  tree  be  straight,  vigorous,  clean,  and  that 
it  should  have  abundant  and  symmetrical  roots. 


/i4  FIELD   NOTES   ON   APPLE   CULTUKE. 

CHAPTER    VI. 

HOW  TO  PLOW  AN   ORCHARD.— ORCHARD   TILLAGE. 

Whether  to  plow  the  orchard  to  the  trees  each  year,  or 
to  turn  the  sod  in  opposite  directions  in  alternate  years, 
must  depend  upon  the  soil  and  location.  It  is  only  in 
exceptional  cases  that  the  former  course  should  be  pur- 
sued. In  poorly-drained  orchards,  on  low,  black  land, 
this  practice  of  heaping  the  sod  about  the  trees  has  the 
advantage  of  favoring  drainage.  Even  in  this  particular, 
however,  it  is  doubtful  if  the  benefits  will  overbalance 
the  inconvenience  resulting  from  such  a  practice.  Bet- 
ter tile-drain  the  orchard  and  keep  the  surface  even. 
Drainage  is  not  always  secured  by  the  deep  dead  fur- 
rows. The  ground  must  have  a  good  natural  slope,  or 
deep  pools  will  be  formed  in  the  dead  furrows  just  where 
the  young  roots  demand  warmth  and  drainage.  The 
constant  lowering  of  the  dead  furrows  cuts  off  the  smaller 
roots  and  drives  them  deep  into  the  subsoil  where  there 
is  little  nutriment.  The  valuable  surface  soil  is  piled  up 
about  about  the  trees,  where  it  does  no  good.  Roots  feed 
largely  upon  the  valuable  elements  which  leach  down 
from  the  surface  soil.  The  most  active  roots  of  large 
trees  are  far  from  the  trunk.  An  uneven  surface  in  an 
orchard  is  a  constant  source  of  aggravation,  especially  in 
picking-time,  when  one  must  enter  with  a  wagon.  Wind- 
falls roll  into  the  dead  furrows,  and  become  bruised,  wet 
and  decayed.  The  sod  furrow  does  not  usually  strike  close 
against  the  body  of  the  tree.  As  a  consequence,  a  little 
depression  is  formed  there,  into  which  drifts  litter,  form- 


HOW   TO   PLOW   AN   ORCHARD.  25 

ing  an  attractive  home  to  insects  and  mice.  There  is  no 
danger  of  injuring  trees  by  plowing  away  from  them  and 
close  to  them,  if  one  has  trained  his  trees  properly  and  if 
he  exercises  care.  If  the  practice  of  close  plowing  be  in- 
augurated in  young  orchards,  the  roots  will  start  deep 
enough  to  avoid  the  plow.  It  is  not  necessary  to  plow 
deep.  Trees  should  be  pruned  high.  Low-headed 
trees  are  an  abomination,  and  they  present  hardly  any 
advantage  over  high  tops.  With  moderately  high-topped 
trees,  short  whiffletrees,  low  hames,  a  strap  back-pad 
with  leather  turrets,  a  gentle  team  and  a  careful  man, 
one  need  not  fear  about  injuring  trees.  Plow  one  year 
east  and  west,  the  next  north  and  south  ;  one  year  to  the 
trees,  one  year  from  them. 

ORCHARD  TILLAGE. 

In  the  latitude  of  Boston  and  Chicago,  cultivation  in 
the  orchard  should  cease  before  September.  It  is,  per- 
haps, a  good  rule  to  stop  the  plow  and  the  hoe  a  month 
before  frost  is  expected.  Late  cultivation  is  always  haz- 
ardous, and  especially  so  in  the  case  of  young  trees  or  of 
tender  varieties.  There  is  much  room  for  an  honest 
difference  of  opinion  as  to  the  condition  in  which  the 
orchiiid  should  be  left  after  a  crop  is  removed.  A 
liighly  successful  friend  maintains  that  the  orchard 
should  be  left  in  weeds  because  they  hold  the  snow. 
I  should  much  prefer  a  perfectly  clean  surface  to 
a  weedy  one.  I  doubt  if  snow  is  so  valuable  a  cover- 
ing about  apple  trees  as  some  suppose.  I  even  have 
my  doubts  as  to  its  value  in  peach  orchards.  At  the 
best,  it  is  a  transient  covering  and  it  comes  and  goes 


'M  FIELD   NOTES   OX    APPLE   CULTURE. 

during  the  winter.  I  have  often  made  comparative  ob- 
servations on  the  effects  of  snow  and  no  snow  in  the 
large  peach  orchards  along  the  east  shore  of  Lake  Michi- 
gan, but  I  was  never  able  to  see  any  decided  advantages 
of  the  snow  protection.  If  the  snow  can  be  held  without 
the  expenditure  of  much  labor,  or  without  running  the 
risk  of  seeding  the  farm  to  weeds,  then  it  may  be  desirable. 
If  the  orchard  is  not  in  sod,  the  most  desirable  fall 
treatment  I  have  ever  known  is  sowing  rye  early  in  Sep- 
tember. The  rye  does  not  demand  a  deeply  plowed  soil, 
but  the  shallow  plowing  is  sufficient  to  turn  under  weeds, 
and  the  subsequent  growth  of  the  grain  will  keep  down 
those  which  may  start.  In  the  spring  the  rye  may  be 
plowed  under  early  as  a  manure. 

The  whole  question  of  how  much  and  what  kind  of 
cultivation  the  orchard  is  to  receive,  will  depend  directly 
upon  the  kind  of  crops  grown  in  it.  If  it  is  necessary  to 
grow  grain — wheat,  oats  or  barley — in  the  orchard,  year 
after  year,  the  orchard  had  better  be  given  up  entirely. 
I  never  knew  any  profit  to  come  from  such  an  orchard. 
On  the  other  hand,  I  would  not  recommend  giving  up  the 
gi-ound  entirely  to  the  trees  for  the  first  few  years.  In 
most  cases  the  trees  will  receive  just  the  cultivation 
that  the  crops  which  are  grown  among  them  receive, 
and,  if  no  crop  is  raised,  the  cultivation  of  the  orchard 
will  probably  be  neglected.  For  ten  years,  or  more, 
after  apple  trees  are  set,  the  soil  ought  to  yield  fair  crops 
of  potatoes,  corn  or  garden  vegetables,  and  the  same  is 
often  true  of  a  peach  orchard  for  three  or  four  years.  In 
most  cases  it  is  a  direct  benefit  to  the  trees  to  grow  crops 
among  them,  and  if  a  liberal  amount  of  manure  is  used 

/ 


HOW  TO    PLOW   AN   ORCHARD.  2"? 

and  the  crop  is  harvested  early,  no  possible  harm  can  re- 
sult. The  best  apple  orchards  I  have  ever  seen  yield 
remunerative  crops  of  annual  produce  until  the  trees  be- 
gin to  bear  heavily.  The  trees,  however,  are  the  primary 
care.  I  have  no  faith,  as  a  rule,  in  the  statements  that 
fruit  trees  do  not  profit  by  cultivation.  A  farmer  would 
not  attempt  to  raise  corn  by  planting  it  in  sod  and  then 
mulching  it,  but  many  undertake  to  grow  apple  trees  in 
this  manner.  The  man  who  treats  his  orchard  as  he 
■would  his  corn-field  is  bound  to  succeed. 

Returning  now  to  the  particular  kind  of  crops  for  an 
orchard,  we  will  select  first  those  which  demand  good 
culture  throughout  their  growing  season.  Among  such 
crops  are  potatoes,  corn  and  garden  vegetables.  I  know 
of  no  better  crop  than  early  potatoes.  The  overturning 
of  the  ground  at  digging  time  destroys  the  late  weeds  and 
furnis.hes  a  good  late  summer  stirring  of  the  soil.  In 
many  places,  especially  at  the  West,  corn  is  regarded  as 
the  best  crop  for  a  young  orchard,  as  it  protects  the  trees 
from  winds  and  keeps  the  ground  cool.  The  protection 
from  winds  is  rather  an  imaginary  benefit,  as  the  heaviest 
winds  occur  when  the  corn  cannot  afford  protection. 
All  the  garden  vegetables  which  are  harvested  by  the 
first  or  the  middle  of  August  are  excellent  orchard  crops, 
and  in  many  parts  of  New  England,  at  least,  they  are 
profitable  when  grown  in  large  quantities. 


28  FIELD   NOTES   ON   APPLE   CULTUEE. 

CHAPTER    VII. 
MANURES  FOR  THE  ORCHARD. 

It  appears  to  be  a  general  notion  that  fruit  trees  do 
not  require  manure  in  the  same  proportion  as  other  crops. 
The  reason  for  this  notion  is  apparent.  Entirely  neg- 
lected trees  usually  bear  a  moderate  crop  of  fruit,  at 
least  once  in  two  or  three  years,  and  not  having  culti- 
vated and  liberally  manured  trees  to  contrast  with  them, 
the  grower  does  not  see  great  need  of  manuring.  To 
satisfy  curiosity,  let  a  person  cultivate  and  manure 
a  portion  of  a  neglected  '  orchard,  and  then  note  the 
comparative  thriftiuess  and  fruitfulness  of  the  cultivated 
and  neglected  portions.  Lack  of  vigor  in  trees  is  one 
reason  for  their  being  attacked  by  insects. 

The  first  step  in  the  enriching  of  an  orchard  is  good 
cultivation,  as  recommended  in  the  j^receding  chapter. 
For  good  cultivation  there  is  no  adequate  substitute. 
Barnyard  manure  is  the  best  of  all  manures  for  the  or- 
chard in  the  general  run  of  cases.  It  cannot  always  be 
had  in  sufficient  quantity,  however,  to  supply  the  orchard 
oreven  a  portion  of  it,  as  the  fruit  trees  are  commonly 
an  entirely  secondary  consideration  to  grain  and  vegeta- 
ble crops.  If  crops  are  grown  in  the  orchard,  the  trees 
will  obtain  a  part  of  the  manure  which  is  applied  to 
the  crop.  It  is  a  good  plan  to  reserve  a  certain  portion  of 
the  manure  each  year  for  the  orchard  and  to  apply  it  to 
different  parts  of  the  orchard  in  succession.  It  should 
be  plowed  or  harrowed  in  in  the  spring.  The  old  mis- 
take of  applying  the  manure  close  about  the  trunk  of  the 


MANURES    FOR   THE    ORCHARD.  29 

tree  should  never  be  made.  It  is  not  advisable  to  feed 
horses  by  tying  oats  about  their  legs.  There  are  very 
many  refuse  matters  about  the  farm  or  in  the  neighbor- 
hood which  cau  be  composted.  An  intimate  friend, 
who  has  the  reputation  of  making  everything  into  ma- 
nure, has  also  the  best  fruit  of  any  one  in  the  neigh- 
borhood. From  a  shingle  mill  nearly  two  miles  from 
his  lioine  he  drew  the  shavings  and  used  them  as  bed- 
ding. From  the  stable  they  went  into  the  manure 
lieai)  and  froui  the  manure  heap  into  the  orchard.  A 
pile  of  sawdust  three  miles  away  was  utilized  in  the 
same  manner.  Even  cinders  from  the  blacksmith 
shop  went  into  his  manure  piles.  He  asked  the  privilege 
of  mowing  swales  on  his  neighbors'  farms.  The  weeds, 
brush  and  swale  hay  were  obtained  in  quantities  and 
stacked  in  the  sheep  yard.  All  winter  this  was  fed  to 
the  sheep  in  abundance.  They  obtained  half  their  liv- 
ing from  it,  and  the  remainder  was  broken  and  trampled 
down.  In  the  spring  it  was  carted  to  the  orchard. 
Even  the  fine  brush,  which  was  cut  from  the  apple  trees, 
often  went  into  the  manure.  Such  litter,  after  standing 
a  year  or  more  in  a  compost  heap,  with  a  number  of 
turnings  and  the  use  of  a  little  quicklime,  will  be  en- 
tirely decomposed.  In  this  manner  utilize  the  refuse 
from  the  vegetable  garden,  the  autumn  leaves,  the  brakes 
in  pastures,  and  all  other  materials  which  can  be  made 
to  decay.  Of  course  the  weeds  should  be  cut  before 
the  seeds  are  ripe.  If  one  keeps  stock,  this  litter 
may  be  thrown  directly  into  the  stable  or  yard,  to  be 
broken  and  picked  over  by  hogs,  sheep  and  cows.  This 
manner  of  disposing  of  litter  produces  a  fertilizer  little 


30  FIELD   NOTES  .ON-  APPLE   CULTURE. 

inferior  to  a  compost,  and  it  is  less  expensive.  Few 
farmers  realize  how  much  fertilizing  material  annually 
goes  to  waste. 

Wood  ashes  are  an  invaluable  manure  for  the  orchard. 
They  may  be  used  when  leached  or  unleached.  Un- 
leached  ashes  should  be  used  with  caution.  Leached 
ashes  may  be  applied  to  the  depth  of  two  inches. 

It  is  an  absurd  notion  that  manuring  fruit  trees  is  in- 
jurious. ]  have  applied  barnyard  manure  for  years  and 
never  knew  any  injury  to  result.  One  must  exercise 
judgment,  however,  as  well  as  in  the  case  of  grain  or 
other  crops. 

Green  manuring  is  often  to  be  recommended.  Rye  is 
especially  good  for  a  green  manure  in  the  orchard.  It 
may  be  sown  in  the  fall  with  a  very  little  stirring  of  the 
ground  and  turned  under  the  next  spring.  During  the 
winter  the  rye  holds  the  snow,  which  may  give  some 
protection. 


sou    IX   THE    OKCUAllD.  31 

CHAP  TEE    VIII. 
SOD  IN  THE  ORCHARD. 

For  the  first  eight  or  ten  years  after  apple  or  pear  trees 
are  set,  they  demand  cultivation  with  the  plow  and  a  lib- 
eral application  of  manure.  After  this  the  orchard  may 
often  be  seeded  down  for  a  time  to  advantage.  Whether 
or  no  an  orchard  should  be  seeded  will  depend  upon  the 
richness  of  the  soil,  the  condition  of  the  trees  and  the 
amount  of  manure  or  mold  at  the  command  of  the 
grower.  There  is  no  general  rule.  If  there  is  a  doubt 
as  to  the  expediency  of  seeding,  it  is  best  to  cultivate. 

If  an  orchard  has  been  properly  managed  during  the 
first  ten  years  of  its  life  the  soil  will  be  rich  and  in  good 
tilth.  The  trees  will  be  making  a  good  growth,  and  they 
will  present  a  dark  and  vigorous  apj)earance.  Such  or- 
chards will  bear  seeding  down  and  they  may  profit  by  it. 
But  even  under  these  favorable  conditions  I  do  not  be- 
lieve that  seeding  should  be  permanent.  Two  or  three 
years  of  June  grass,  orchard  grass  or  clover  should  com- 
monly be  the  limit,  and  dnring  this  time  the  sod  should 
be  closely  pastured.  One  trouble  with  high  grass  in 
orchards  is  the  increased  liability  to  danger  from  drouth. 

I  have  said  that  cultivation  is  always  safe  and  profit- 
able, and  yet  I  have  seen  orchards  on  heavy  land 
which  made  prodigious  wood  growth  and  bore  but  lit- 
tle. When  such  orchards  were  seeded  down,  the  growth 
was  checked,  and  more  fruit  was  the  result.  These  are 
exceptional  cases.  Apples  on  cultivated  trees  are  usually 
lighter  colored  than  those  on  trees  in  sod.  Highly  col- 
ored apples  are  oftenest  borne  on  slow  growing  trees. 


32  FIELD   NOTES   ON   APPLE   CULTURE. 

There  are  some  eases  in  whicli  seeding  cannot  be  dis- 
pensed with,  as  in  old  orchards  and  on  stony  ground 
which  cannot  be  plowed.  One  of  the  advantages  of  good 
and  persistent  cultivation,  as  long  as  the  orchard  can  be 
plowed,  is  to  prepare  soil  and  trees  for  the  sodded  old 
age  which  overtakes  the  tree  at  last  and  forbids  the  en- 
croachment of  the  plow.  Orchard  grass  is  a  general 
favorite  for  old  orchards,  but  unless  it  is  sown  thickly 
and  is  fed  down  close  it  is  apt  to  make  "stools,"  or 
clumps.  Nearly  all  soils  will  run  into  June  grass, 
which  makes  a  smooth  and  firm  sod.  Every  two  or  three 
years  apply  a  heavy  top-dressing  of  any  mulch  or  manure 
>vhich  is  cheapest.  Dressings  of  wood  ashes  are  excel- 
lent. Straw  is  also  one  of  the  most  desirable  mulches. 
I  have  known  a  straw  mulch  a  foot  thick  to  decay  and 
to  pass  almost  out  of  sight  in  one  year.  Fallen  leaves 
spread  over  the  ground  and  held  down  by  sedge  or  other 
coarse  material  are  also  excellent.  The  sedge  and  weeds 
which  grow  in  bogs,  if  mowed  early,  before  the  seeds 
are  ripe,  may  be  used  to  advantage ;  also  brakes,  fine 
brush,  sawdust,  coarse  horse  manure — in  fact,  any  ma- 
terial which  can  be  spread  over  the  surface  to  sufficient 
depth  to  keep  the  sod  loose  and  which  will  decay  speedily, 
is  to  be  recommended.  This  mulch  is  to  be  applied  only 
through  the  center  of  the  spaces  if  sufficient  quantity  can- 
not be  had  to  cover  the  whole  ground.  On  many  of  the 
rocky  hillsides  in  the  Eastern  States,  where  the  plow 
cannot  be  used,  trees  could  no  doubt  be  grown  at  a  profit 
with  no  other  cultivation  than  an  annual  heavy  dressing 
of  manure.  It  should  be  remembered  that  old  orchards 
can  usually  be  plowed  to  within  ten  or  fifteen  feet  of 


GENERAL  NOTES  ON   PRUNING.  33 

the  trunk,  especially  if  the  trees  stand  a  good  distance 
apart,  and  this  should  be  done  every  three  years  at  least. 
To  summarize  :  As  a  rule,  cultivate  for  ten  years 
after  planting  and  as  long  thereafter  as  possible.  Short 
rotations  of  grass  are  not  injurious  when  the  ground  has 
been  enriched  by  tillage  and  manure  and  the  trees  are 
tlirifty.  When  seeding  is  advisable  or  necessary,  pasture 
closely  with  hogs  or  sheep  and  apply  liberal  mulching 
and  top  dressing. 


CHAPTER    IX. 
GENERAL  NOTES  ON  PRUNING.— FORMS  OF  TREES. 

Most  people  make  too  hard  work  of  pruning.  In  this, 
as  in  other  farm  operations,  the  chief  requisite  to  success 
is  good  judgment.  It  requires  no  science  to  enable  one 
to  prune  an  apple  tree.  The  orchardist  must  at  once 
and  forever  renounce  the  notion  that  he  must  trim  his 
trees,  that  he  must  dress  them  up  into  symmetrical  and 
formal  shapes.  He  must  prune.  He  must  decide  how 
long  he  will  have  the  trunk  and  then,  each  year,  cut  out 
superfluous  branches.  It  is  necessary  that  the  trees 
should,  if  possible,  be  kept  straight  and  evenly  balanced, 
but  it  is  not  necessary  or  desirable  to  trim  into  regular 
forms. 

I  have  always  pruned  in  May  or  early  June.  Wounds 
made  at  this  time  heal  more  rapidly  than  those  made 
in  early  spring.  It  is  commonly  asserted  that  the  re- 
ir.oval  of  growing  brunches  weakens  the  tree  from  the 


34  FIELD    NOTES   ON   APPLE   CULTURE. 

fact  that  so  many  leaves  and  so  mucli  young  wood  is 
destroyed,  but  I  have  yet  to  see  any  confirmation  of 
this  notion  in  i)ractice.  Pruning  in  February  and  March 
has  its  advantages,  the  most  important  of  which  is  the 
greater  leisure  at  that  time.  The  fact  that  there  is  such 
a  balance  of  opinion  as  to  the  relative  advantages  of 
early  spring  or  late  spring  pruning,  is  proof  that  the 
advantages  of  either  are  mostly  unimportant.  From  the 
facts  that  wounds  heal  sooner,  that  the  work  is  pleasanter 
and  that  the  brush  handles  easier,  I  have  a  preference  for 
pruning  Just  after  the  leaves  appear. 

There  is  a  conspicuous  shoulder  or  enlargement  at  the 
base  of  most  limbs.  It  is  just  at  the 
outer  border  of  this  shoulder  that  the 
limb  should  be  severed.  Cut  at  about 
right  angles  to  the  limb  which 
you  sever,  and  not  to  the  trunk  from 
which  the  limb  springs.  If  cut  at  a 
right  angle  to  the  trunk  the  surface  of 
the  wound  will  be  larger.  This  is 
illustrated  in  figure  2.     The  line  a  h 

Fig.   2.— SHOULDER  T  4--  -«  4. 

OF  A  WMB.         represents  the  proper  direction  oi  cut, 
the  line  c  ^  an  improper  direction. 

I  have  used  many  kinds  of  pruning  tools,  but  for  all 
purposes  nothing  is  so  good  as  a  small  saw  in  the  hands 
of  a  nimble  operator.  A  saw  Avith  a  curved  blade,  with 
reflexed  teeth  for  a  draw  cut  on  the  concave  edge  and 
ordinary  teeth  on  the  convex  edge,  is  handiest.  Long- 
handled  pruning  contrivances  are  unfit  for  continuous 
work,  as  the  constant  looking  up  is  very  tiresome.  For 
small  twigs  m  the  top  of  the  tree  nothing  is  so  good  as 


GENERAL   NOTES   ON   PRUNING. 


35 


the  ordinary  small  hand  pruning  shears  and  a  pruning 
knife.  I  can  work  much  faster  and  with  less  fatigue  by 
getting  into  the  tree  with  saw  and  shears,  than  I  can  by 
standing  on  the  ground  and  using  patent  pruning  tools. 
Of  course  I  am  now  speaking  of  pruning  an  orchard. 
Upon  isolated  shade  or  ornamental  trees  the  long-handled 
tools  are  convenient.  I  do  not  like  heavy  ladders.  If 
step  ladders  are  used,  they  should  be  very  light.  The 
best  ladder  is  made  of  three  rounds.  This  is  long  enough 
to  enable  one  to  get  into  the  tree,  or  the  legs  can  be 
crossed  about  the  top  round,  as  in  figure  3,  if  one  must 
reach  a  limb  where  there  is  no  support  for  the  ladder. 
This  simple  ladder  is  in  use  among  grafters. 

Branches  which  are  parallel  with  stronger  horizontal 

Owmwwfflsu     n        limbs  should  be  removed.     If 
Wm^^^    11       ^^^  limbs  rub,  one  should  be 
cut  out.     The  vigilant  orchard- 
ist    will    cut    out    unnecessary 
limbs  before  they  get  large  and 
troublesome.      It  is  often  said 
that  one  should  never  use  any 
other  tool  than  a  knife  in  prun- 
ing an  orchard  ;   that  every  un- 
necessary  limb   should   be   cut 
before  it  is  large  enough  to  de- 
mand a  saw.     This  condition 
of  things  is  certainly  a  desirable 
Fig.  3.-A  SHORT  LADDER,     cousummation,  but  I  do  not  be- 
lieve that  it  can  be  done,  unless  the  operator  has  little  else 
on  his  liands  than  a  hundred  apple  trees.     I  should  not 
limit  my  pruning  by  the  size  of  the  limbs  to  be  cut, 


36  FIELD   NOTES    ON   APPLE   CULTURE. 

In  other  words,  I  should  remove  every  limb  which 
ought  to  be  removed,  large  or  small.  But  it  is  a  sign 
of  a  good  orcbardist  if  the  unnecessary  large  branches 
are  few  or  none. 

FORMS   OF  TREES. 

The  idea  is  still  current,  as  a  result  of  old  teachings, 
that  some  form  of  top  for  all  the  trees  of  an  orchard 
must  be  decided  upon  before  one  enters  upon  the  import- 
ant duties  of  pruning  and  training.  This  shape,  to 
which  everything  must  be  made  to  conform,  may  be  the 
"hollow  top,"  the  "umbrella  shaped,"  the  conical,  or 
the  broad  and  flat  headed.  Whatever  this  uniform  shape 
may  be,  it  is  at  variance  with  nature,  and  does  not  rec- 
ognize the  peculiar  and  distinguishing  forms  of  different 
varieties.  It  is  by  no  means  necessary  that  all  the  trees 
of  an  orchard  should  be  trimmed  into  one  form.  A  vari- 
ety in  the  forms  will  heighten  rather  than  decrease  the 
beauty  of  an  orchard.  But  an  orchard  is  not  supposed 
to  be  trained  for  beauty.  The  training  must  have  for  its 
object  the  production  of  more  and  better  fruit,  and  the 
prolonging  of  the  life  of  the  tree.  The  best  rule  for 
shaping  a  tree — if  a  general  direction  may  be  called  a 
rule — might  be  worded  something  like  this  :  Let  the 
top  take  its  natural  shape,  keep  it  symmetrical,  and  cut 
out  all  interfering  limbs.  The  Khode  Island  Greening 
should  be  allowed  to  make  its  natural  broad  and  flat 
head ;  in  fact,  it  cannot  well  be  made  to  take  any  other 
form.  The  strict  and  conical  head  of  the  Northern  Spy 
should  not  be  malformed.  Under  a  proper  and  careful 
thinning  out  of  some  of  the  minor  branches  each  year, 


HIGH   OR   LOW  HEADS   FOR   APPLE  TREES.  37 

one  sort  of  top  can  be  kept  as  symmetrical  and  as  open 
to  light  as  another.  Half  the  difRculties  of  pruning  are 
done  away  with  when  one  decides  to  lot  the  top  take  its 
natural  form.  If  one  attempts  to  shape  his  trees  to  some 
model  he  will  be  liable  to  constant  disappointment  and 
exasperation.  He  will  find  mauy  trees  stubbornly  con- 
trary. He  will  cut  and  train  and  worry  for  a  few  years, 
and  find  in  the  end  that  the  tree  has  the  mastery. 


CHAPTER    X. 
HIGH  OR  LOW  HEADS  FOR  APPLE  TREES. 

This  subject  is  entirely  unworthy  the  controversy  it 
has  occasioned.  Extremes  in  orcharding  are  as  obnox- 
ious as  in  other  pursuits.  It  is  evident  that  a  top  which 
rests  upon  the  ground  is  a  nuisance,  and  equally  evident 
that  one  which  is  trained  up  beyond  reach  is  scarcely  less 
so.  The  head  must  be  high  enough  to  allow  a  team  to 
work  under  it,  and  it  must  be  easy  of  access  for  a 
man  and  basket.  AVith  a  properly  trained  team  it  is  not 
necessary  that  the  limbs  be  much  above  their  backs.  It 
is  a  good  rule  to  start  the  top  high  enough  to  clear  a 
horse.  At  such  a  height,  if  properly  pruned,  the  top 
should  be  easy  of  access. 

It  is  an  erroneous  notion  that  a  low  top  is  the  easier 
to  pick  from  and  to  prune.  It  is  easier  to  climb  into  a 
tree  than  it  is  to  crawl  under  it  and  into  it,  with  no  room 
for  standing  up  under  it.  It  is  also  a  mistake  to  suppose 
that  low  trees  hold  their  apples  better  during  winds. 


88  FIELD   NOTES   ON   APPLE   CULTURE. 

Low  trees  give  as  many  wind-falls  as  high  ones.  The 
apples  on  the  under  side  of  these  low  heads  are  gener- 
ally inferior.  They  are  small,  green,  speckled  and  insipid. 
They  get  little  sun,  and,  in  consequence  of  dampness, 
they  mildew.  A  very  low  tree  is  an  abomination.  I  had 
ratlier  have  a  very  high  one,  if  I  could  not  have  the 
golden  mean. 

It  is  a  difficult  matter  to  train  some  varieties  into  a 
a  satisfactory  head.  The  Eh  ode  Island  Greening  is  an 
unmanageable  grower.  At  least  some  of  the  sorts  of 
Greenings  are ;  for  Greening,  like  some  other  of  our 
names,  is  one  which  covers  a  series  of  very  nearly  related 
sorts  rather  than  one  well-defined  variety.  Some  thirty 
Greenings  were  trained  up  to  the  height  of  a  horse  when 
they  were  young.  Until  they  were  fifteen  years  old  they 
were  pruned  regularly  and  judiciously,  but  at  the  expira- 
tion of  that  time  the  lower  limbs  of  twenty  of  them 
touched  the  ground.  The  ten  remaining  ones  continued 
to  hold  their  limbs  horizontally,  but  in  three  or  four 
years  they  began  to  drop.  Some  of  the  trees  formed  a 
perfect  arbor,  with  a  cool,  still  nook  around  the  trunk 
and  measuring  from  fifteen  to  twenty  feet  in  diameter. 
On  younger  trees  I  tried  many  devices  in  the  way 
of  pruning  to  keep  the  branches  upright,  but  sooner  or 
later,  with  a  few  exceptions,  their  ends  went  down.  A 
few  show  an  upright  habit,  but  I  do  not  believe  that  they 
are  true  Rhode  Island  Greenings.  There  is  no  remedy 
for  this  provoking  habit  of  the  branches.  The  drooping 
can  be  delayed,  and  it  will  be  less  aggravating  when  it 
does  appear,  if  the  lower  branches  are  made  stocky.  If 
all  the  side  limbs  are  cut  off  for  some  distance,  and  a 


TRAINING   AND   REPAIIIIXG    ORCHARD   TREES.        39 

heavy  bush  is  left  at  the  end  of  the  branch,  trouble  is 
inevitable. 

Baldwins,  and  other  varieties  in  the  same  orchard, 
pruned  in  the  same  manner  as  the  Greenings,  but  with 
less  care,  do  not  droop.  Trees  of  a  drooping  habit  should 
be  planted  on  a  dry  and  gravelly  soil,  and  when  they 
begin  to  cover  the  ground  all  tall  grass  and  litter  should  be 
kept  away  from  them.  Dryness  under  the  tree  may  then 
be  secured.  Perhaps  it  would  help  Greenings  to  top-graft 
them,  although  the  most  complete  drooper  I  ever  saw  is 
top-grafted. 


CHAPTER    XI. 


TRAINING  AND  REPAIRING  ORCHARD  TREES.— 
SCRAPING. 

Aside  from  ordinary  pruning,  which  is  chiefly  con- 
cerned with  the  form  of  the  tree,  there  are  certain  matters 
of  secondary  importance  and  of  occasional  occurence 
■which  the  pruner  must  not  neglect.  Young  trees  will 
be  twisted  by  winds,  or  they  may  be  entirely  broken  down  ; 
crotches  will  need  to  be  strengthened  and  broken  tops  re- 
paired. Repair  is  not  necessarily  associated  with  old  age 
and  decay.  Vigorous  apple  trees  can  sometimes  be  re- 
paired to  as  good  advantage  as  can  a  strong  wagon  or 
sleigh. 

If  the  grower  has  been  so  unfortunate  as  to  secure  weak 
and  slender  trees  for  planting,  he  must  make  them  stocky 
by  good  cultivation  and  by  headmg  back.     Induce  a  vig- 


40  FIELD   XOTKS   OX    APPLE   CULTUKE. 

orous  growth  by  a  liberal  application  of  marure,  if  tne 
soil  is  not  strong,  and  by  frequently  stirring  the  soil. 
Keep  off  all  insects.  It  will  not  be  necessary  to  cut  the 
tree  back  to  a  mere  stump,  as  is  often  done.  After  the 
proper  form  of  the  young  top  is  decided  upon,  pinch  back 
or  cut  off  the  tips  of  all  the  twigs,  and  repeat  the  opera- 
tion during  the  whole  season.  If  the  tree  has  a  very 
strong  leader  it  may  be  necessary  to  cut  it  off  entirely. 
If  in  a  windy  place,  most  slender  trees  will  need  to  be 
staked.  I  do  not  believe  in  the  advice  of  many  that  it  is 
an  injury  to  the  tree  to  stake  it.  Some  of  the  finest  and 
straightest  trees  I  know  were  staked  for  the  first  two 
years  after  being  set.  If  staking  can  be  avoided  con- 
veniently, it  would,  of  course,  be  folly  to  resort  to  it.  It 
is  a  good  practice  to  stamp  a  sod  firmly  against  the  tree 
on  the  side  towards  which  it  leans.  If  the  sod  is  large 
and  properly  placed,  it  will  often  answer  all  the  pur- 
poses of  a  stake.  There  are  two  troubles  connected  with 
staking  :  the  string  or  band  is  apt  to  gall  the  tree,  and 
the  stake  protects  the  tree  from  the  wind  in  one  direction 
only.  To  avoid  the  galling,  I  have  found  it  best  to  use  a 
strip  of  ticking  or  flannel  an  inch  or  so  wide,  tied 
snugly  about  the  tree.  Such  a  band  will  yield  enough  to 
allow  the  trunk  to  expand  with  growth.  Eye  straw, 
when  cut  before  the  grain  is  ripe,  makes  excellent  bands. 
A  stake  upon  each  side  of  the  tree,  with  a  band  tied 
across,  will  keep  the  tree  in  place  much  better  than  a 
single  stake. 

Trees  which  have  been  broken  down  by  cattle,  can  often 
be  saved  by  tying  them  firmly  against  a  stout  stake  both 
below  and  above  the  break,  and  by  thoroughly  covering  the 


TRAIKING  AND  REPAIRIis^G   ORCHARD  TREES.        41 

injured  surface  with  grafting  wax.  In  cases  of  ''barking," 
which  is  ahuost  unavoidable  in  hirge  orchards,  I  have 
found  a  good  remedy  to  be  a  liberal  application  of  cow 
dung,  over  which  stout  cloths  are  firmly  wound.  All 
the  loose  bark  should  be  removed. 

The  disfiguring  of  the  tops  of  trees  by  injuries  from  ice 
or  wind,  and  by  heavy  loads  of  fruit,  is  a  frequent  occur- 
rence.   In  this  matter  "  an  ounce  of  prevention  is  worth  a 


Fig.   4.— TWISTED   BRANCHES   IN   A  CROTCH. 

pound  of  cure."  In  training  young  trees  all  crotches  should 
be  avoided.  If  the  tree,  as  it  comes  from  the  nursery,  has 
a  fork,  one  branch  should  be  removed  and  the  other  tied 
up  perpendicularly.  If  bad  crotches  should  occur  in  trees 
six  years  old  or  upwards,  they  should  be  braced.  This 
bracing  is  done  by  twisting  together  two  twigs,  one  from 
the  inside  of  each  branch  of  the  crotch.  The  twigs  may 
be  twisted  about  each  other  loosely,  the  ends  being 
allowed  to  project  freely  beyond  the  opposite  branches  of 
the  crotch  (figure  4).  If  kept  in  place,  these  twigs  will 
soon  begin  to  adhere  along  their  whole  length,  and  after 


42 


FIELD   NOTES   OX   APPLE   CULTJUE. 


tlirce  or  four  years  the  free  ends  may  be  cut  off.  In  a  few 
years  they  will  be  united  into  a  perfectly  solid  bar  across 
the  crotch  (figure  5).  Twigs  from  the  size  of  a  lead  pencil 
to  the  size  of  one's  finger  unite  most  readily.  All  tlie 
larger  crotches  of  an  apple  tree  may  be  braced  in  this 
manner,  and  injury  from  splitting  will  be  mostly  avoided. 
When  a  large  branch  shows  signs  of  splitting,  one  can- 


Fig.   5.— LIVING  BRACE  IN   A  CROTCH. 

not  wait  for  the  growing  together  of  small  limbs.  In  sucli 
cases  iron  bolts  must  be  used.  Much  damage  to  trees 
can  be  averted  if  bolts  are  used  as  soon  as  a  weakness  is 
discovered.  Half-inch  rods  of  considerable  lengtli  may 
also  be  run  through  the  branches  at  some  distance  above 
their  junction.     When  crotches  have  been  split  entirely 


TRAINIKG   ASb    KEPAIRIXG   OUCHAKD  TREES.  43 

apart,  the  branches  may  often  be  brouglit  together  again 
and  secured  with  bolts.  I  will  describe  a  case  of  unusual 
severity,  which  will  serve  to  illustrate  the  method  to  be 
employed  in  repairing  broken  trees.  An  over-laden 
Baldwin  tree,  a  foot  or  more  in  diameter,  the  top  of  which 
started  about  four  feet  from  the  ground,  was  broken  down 
by  a  wind  storm.  The  broken  portion  included  nearly  half 
the  tree,  and  it  split  away  from  the  main  portion  and  lay 
flat  upon  the  ground.  The  split  reached  to  the  heart  of  the 
trunk,  and  extended  to  the  ground.  Ropes  were  secured  to 
the  fallen  portion,  and  were  then  passed  around  limbs  on 
the  standing  portion,  so  that  the  broken  part  could  be 
pulled  up  as  with  so  many  ropes  and  pulleys.  Several  men 
pulled  up  the  broken  half,  and  a  three-fourths  inch  iron 
rod  was  passed  through  the  body,  and  the  two  parts 
were  brought  snugly  together  by  a  heavy  nut.  Two  rods, 
five  or  six  feet  long,  were  passed  through  the  branches 
higher  up,  and  were  drawn  tight  by  nuts.  The  heads  of 
the  bolts  were  large  and  flat,  so  that  they  could  not  be 
pulled  into  the  wood,  and  the  nuts  had  large  washers 
underneath  them.  The  split  was  then  thoroughly  waxed 
over  and  covered  with  a  piece  of  rubber  cloth.  The  two 
parts  of  the  tree  united,  and  in  two  years  there  was  no  evi- 
dence of  a  split  except  the  bolts.  Bands  placed  about 
trees  to  brace  them  are  always  injurious,  as  they  restrict 
growth.  I  have  never  known  injury  to  result  from  the 
use  of  bolts.  The  heads  soon  grow  in,  and  no  trace  is 
left  of  them. 

Large  limbs  often  break  down  in  such  a  manner  as  to 
preclude  all  possibility  of  rejoining  the  broken  parts. 
The  loss  of  the  limbs  may  destroy  the  symmetry  of  the 


44  FIELD   NOTES   ON   APPLE  CULTURE. 

tree.  In  such  cases  one  must  keep  the  remaining  portion 
of  the  tree  cut  back,  and  must  train  up  the  sprouts 
which  spring  from  the  wounded  places  to  make  good  the 
missing  portion.  If  such  sprouts  do  not  arise  they  can 
be  made  by  the  use  of  scions.  Trim  off  smoothly  the 
remaining  broken  ends  of  the  branches,  and  insert  the 
scions  between  the  bark  and  the  wood,  at  a  distance  of 
an  inch  or  two  apart  all  around  the  wound.  Scions  for 
this  purpose  should  be  cut  thin,  with  both  edges  of  the 
bevel  equal  in  thickness.  As  soon  as  the  scions  are  set, 
wax  over  all  exposed  surfaces  thoroughly,  the  same  as  for 
ordinary  grafting. 

If  trees  are  girdled  by  mice  or  rabbits  in  the  winter, 
some  method  should  early  be  pursued  to  save  them.  The 
very  first  measure  after  the  mischief  is  discovered  is  to 
protect  the  wounded  surface  by  tying  over  it  heavy  rags, 
or  banking  earth  against  it.  This  keeps  the  surface  of 
the  wood  soft,  and  prevents  checking  and  drying  by 
wind.  It  is  useless  to  insert  scions  or  to  apply  other 
remedies  until  the  trees  begin  to  start  in  the  spring. 
Fresh  cow  dung  plastered  over  the  denuded  surface,  and 
tied  on  tightly  with  an  abundance  of  cloths,  will  always 
save  trees  that  are  girdled  before  July,  and  it  will  usually 
save  those  girdled  later.  I  have  known  no  less  than  a 
hundred  trees  to  be  saved  in  this  manner,  and  I  do  not 
recall  a  single  failure. 

THE   RAGGED   BARK. 

The  old  and  rough  bark  is  probably  some  protection  to 
trees  in  winter.  It  presents  an  untidy  appearance,  how- 
ever. It  is  a  safe  practice  to  remove  it  in  late  spring. 
A  much  worn,  thin  hoe,  with  a  handle  two  foot  long,  i 


GENERAL   NOTES    ON    GKAFTING.  45 

a  handy  implement  for  scraping  trees.  It  is  never  ad- 
visable to  scrape  to  the  "quick,"  so  as  to  expose  the 
live  bark.  Simply  remove  the  loose  shreds  by  a  light 
pressure  of  the  hoe.  The  removal  of  this  bark  destroys 
lodging  places  of  insects,  and  adds  wonderfully  to  the 
appearance  of  an  orchard.  The  person  who  keeps  his 
orchard  neat  and  attractive  is  usually  successful.  I  know 
of  no  reason  for  whitewashing  the  trunks  of  trees,  although 
the  practice  is  a  common  one. 


CHAPTER    XII. 
GENERAL  NOTES  ON  GRAFTING. 

In  most  cases  it  is  better  to  set  trees  which  have  been 
grafted  in  the  nursery  than  to  set  seedlings,  with  the  ex- 
pectation of  top-grafting  them.  If  the  variety  of  apple  or 
pear  is  a  good  grower,  a  tree  can  be  grown  more  quickly 
and  more  satisfactorily  if  grafted  before  being  set  in  tlie 
orchard.  To  cut  off  a  tree  after  it  is  three  years  old  to 
graft  it,  is  to  put  it  back  two  years.  It  should  be  cut  off 
and  grafted  when  a  year  old,  and  the  process  should  be 
done  in  the  nursery.  I  am  not  speaking  in  the  interest 
of  root-grafting,  but  I  wish  to  make  it  plain  that  time  is 
lost  by  top-grafting  trees,  and,  in  the  great  majority  of 
cases,  no  better  trees  are  secured.  In  many  cases  there 
are  decided  disadvantages,  besides  the  loss  of  time,  in 
this  top-grafting.  When  there  is  a  great  difference  in 
the  rate  of  growth  of  the  stock  and  scion,  there  will  be 


4:6  riELD   NOTES   OX    APPLE   CULTURE. 

formed  a  disagreeable  irregularity  at  the  junction.  If 
the  stock  is  a  much  more  rapid  grower  than  the  graft 
there  will  be  a  sudden  upward  contraction  at  the  point 
of  union,  or  the  opposite  direction  of  contraction  may 
occur  if  the  graft  grows  faster  than  the  stock.  This  ir- 
regularity in  the  trunk  or  main  branches  may  not  impair 
the  vitality  of  the  tree,  but  it  is  always  unsightly  and 
annoying. 

It  is  a  wise  plan  to  avoid  grafting  as  much  as  possible. 
There  are  few  orchards,  however,  in  which  it  can  be  en- 
tirely dispensed  with.  The  most  successful  grafting  is 
that  which  disturbs  the  tree  the  least  and  which  leaves  it 
the  nearest  like  its  original  shape.  The  first  rule  to  learn 
in  grafting  large  trees  is  this  :  Graft  many  and  small 
limbs.  It  is  a  good  plan  before  cutting  a  tree  to  stand 
at  some  distance  from  it  and  to  decide  carefully  at  what 
distance  from  the  body  or  from  the  center  of  the  top  the 
main  limbs  should  be  grafted  to  insure  a  good  top.  If  a 
spread  of  ten  feet  each  way  from  the  center  is  decided 
upon,  let  all  the  main  branches  be  grafted  at  about  that 
distance.  Figure  6  is  a  tolerable  representation  of  this 
practice.  Simply  making  the  scions  live  is  but  a  part  of 
the  operation  upon  old  trees.  One  must  plan  for  the  fu- 
ture top  of  the  tree.  He  must  graft  such  limbs  as  should 
make  permanent  factors  in  the  top  he  is  building,  and 
while  he  should  avoid  grafting  too  many  limbs,  he  should 
likewise  avoid  grafting  too  few.  It  should  be  borne  in 
mind  that  when  a  horizontal  limb  is  grafted,  the  scion 
will  grow  upwards,  and  the  breadth  of  the  tree  will  not 
be  much  increased  by  subsequent  growth.  This  is  es- 
pecially true  of  old  trees.     Trees  ten  years  old,  if  prop- 


GE2!fEEAL   AZOTES   OX    GRAFTI2^G. 


47 


erly  grafted,  oiten  overcome  tliis  fault  and  make  good 
horizontal  growths.  If  a  tree  has  been  properly  pruned, 
nearly  all  the  conspicuous  branches  should  be  grafted. 
As  a  rule  they  should  not  be  grafted  where  they  exceed 
an  inch  in  diameter.     Some  scions  should  be  set  on  side 


Fig.  6. — A   TKEE   PREPARED   FOK   TOP-GKAFTING. 

branches  of  all  the  larger  limbs,  if  the  tree  is  large. 
Long,  pole-like  limbs  should  always  be  avoided.  Tlie  old 
practice  of  grafting  a  few  large  stubs  low  down  in  the 
largest  crotches,  has  nothing  to  recommend  it.  Even 
the  plea  of  cheapness  because  fewer  scions  are  set,  is  over- 
balanced by  the  injury  to  the  tree  and  length  of  time  re- 
quired to  change  the  top,    I  have  seen  many  cases  of  this 


48  FIELD  XOTES   ON   APPLE   CULTURE. 

old  Style  of  grafting,  and  I  think  that  in  every  case  wliere 
the  tree  was  fifteen  years  or  more  old,  bad  results  liave 
followed.  In  some  cases  trees  have  died.  In  others  the 
grower  wisely  concluded  not  to  sacriSce  all  tlie  large  and 
handsome  branches  which  were  not  grafted,  and  the  trees 
soon  grew  up  thick  again  on  the  old  stock,  and  the  scions 
dwindled  or  perished.     In  other  cases  the  whole  top  had 


Fig.  7. — GRAI-TING  KXIFE. 

to  be  grafted  over  again  according  to  the  newer  methods. 
The  kind  of  grafting  most  likely  to  be  practiced  in  the 
orchard  is  that  known  as  cleft  grafting.  The  process  is  a 
simple  one.  In  May,  Just  as  the  leaves  are  pushing  out 
vigorously,  saw  off  the  limb  to  be  grafted  where  it  is  an 
inch  or  less  in  diameter  ;  trim  the  edges  of  the  "  stub  " 
smooth,  and  split  it  with  a  large  knife,  or  a  cleaver  made 


Fig.  8.— GRAFTING  MALLET. 

for  the  purpose.  The  best  implement  for  this  purpose 
can  be  made  from  an  old  flat  file  by  any  blacksmith. 
Its  shape  is  represented  in  figure  7.  The  curved  cutting 
portion  should  span  about  five  inches.  The  handiest 
mallet  is  made  of  a  simple  straight  piece  of  hard  wood, 
about  fifteen  inches  long  and  hung  over  the  wrist  by  a 
large  loop  of  soft  twine.  This  mallet  is  always  in  place 
for  use  and  it  is  not  dropping  from  the  tree.  It  is  shown 
in   figure  8.     Split  the  "stubs"  horizontally.     If  you 


GENERAL   NOTES    ON    GRAFTING.  49 

si)lit  them  perpendicularly,  and  both  scions  grow,  you 
will  have  one  limb  directly  under  another,  which  is  al- 
ways an  inconvenient  and  ill-looking  arrangement.  The 
cleft  should  not  be  more  than  four  inches  deep  at  the 
most.  The  wedge  of  the  knife  is  now  inserted  in  the 
center  of  the  cleft,  and  a  scion  is  set  on  each  side  of  tlie 
stub.  When  the  scion  is  prepared  ready  for  setting  it 
sliould  comprise  about  three  buds.  Tlie  lower  end  is  cut 
wedge-shaped  by  slicing  off  each  side  of  the  sciim  with 
an  even,  smooth  cut.  On  one  side  of  this  wedge-shaped 
portion  should  be  left  one  of  the  buds.  This  outer  edge 
is  commonly  left  thicker  than  the  inner,  so  that  it  re- 
ceives a  firmer  pressure  in  the  stub.  Figure  9  represents 
a  scion. 

When  the  scion  is  set  this  bud  will  be  deep  down  in 
the  side  of  the  cleft  in  the  stub,  and  will  be  covered  with 
wax,  but  being  nearer  the  source  of  nourishment  it  will 
be  the  most  likely  of  any  of  the  buds  to  grow,  and  it  will 
readily  push  through  the  wax.  The  scion  is  set  into  the 
cleft  by  exercising  care  that  the  inner  surface  of  the  bark 
on  the  scion  matches  the  inner  surface  of  the  bark  on  the 
stub.  A  line  between  the  bark  and  the  wood  may  be  ob- . 
served.  This  line  on  the  scion,  in  other  words,  should 
match  this  line  on  the  stub.  Figure  10  represents  the 
stub  just  after  the  scions  are  set.  Wax  the  whole  over 
carefully  and  thoroughly.  Do  not  leave  any  crack  ex- 
posed. Wax  which  is  pretty  hard,  and  which  must  be 
worked  and  applied  with  the  hands,  is  commonly  best. 
For  several  years  I  have  made  grafting  wax  after  the  fol- 
lowing recipe,  and  I  have  found  it  perfectly  satisfactory  : 
Two  pounds  of  rosin,  one  pound  of  beeswax,  one-half 


50 


riELC    X0TE3    OX-  APPLE    CULTUKE. 


pound  of  tiilloAv.  Melt  the  rosin  and  wax  together  in  a 
kettle,  add  the  tallow,  then  pour  a  part  of  the  melted 
mixture  into  a  pail  of  cold  water.  As  soon  as  it  begins 
to  harden,  work  with  the  hands  until  it  gets  nearly  white. 
Keep  the  remainder  of  the  mixture  warm  until  all  has 


Fi^.  9.— A  SCION. 


Fig.  10.- 


-STUB  WITH  SCIONS 
IN   PLACE. 


been  worked  over.     Whenever  the  wax  is  handled  the 
hands  should  be  greased  with  tallow. 

Scions  are  secured  by  cutting  the  vigorous  last  year's 
growth.  They  may  be  cut  at  any  time  during  winter.  If 
cut  in  the  fall  it  is  not  an  easy  matter  to  keep  them  in  good 
condition  all  winter.  If  kept  too  dry  they  will  shrivel  ; 
if  too  Avet  they  will  sprout.  I  have  had  good  success  by 
tvinfr  them  in  bundles  two  or  three  inches  in  diameter 


TOP-GRAFTING   OLD   APPLE   TREES.  51 

and  standing  them  half  their  length  in  moist  sand  in  the 
cellar.  I  have  also  kept  them  in  good  condition  by  stick- 
ing them  half  their  length  into  the  ground  about  the 
base  of  the  tree  from  which  they  were  cut.  If  scions  are 
cut  in  late  winter  or  early  spring,  they  can  be  kept  better 
because  they  do  not  have  to  be  kept  so  long.  It  is  a  com- 
mon notion  that  scions  cut  in  cold  weather  will  not  grow, 
but  I  have  always  had  a  contrary  experience. 


CHAPTER    XIII. 

TOP-GRAFTING  OLD  APPLE  TREES. 

Top-grafting  large  trees  is  at  best  a  harsh  and  unnat- 
ural process,  and  it  should  be  practiced  with  caution.  If 
an  old  tree  bears  moderately  good  fruit,  a  grower  should 
consider  well  before  top-grafting  it.  An  apple  below  the 
average  in  quality  often  makes  good  pies,  sauce  or  dried 
fruit.  If  the  apples  can  be  turned  to  any  profitable  use, 
and  the  tree  is  twenty  years  old,  it  is  doubtful  if  it  will 
pay  to  graft  it.  Much  will  depend  on  the  thriftiness 
of  the  tree.  A  man  who  feeds  his  orchard,  and  prunes 
it  regularly  and  judiciously,  need  have  less  hesitation 
about  top-grafting.  Trees  receiving  such  treatment  will 
stand  a  much  greater  chance  of  fully  recovering  from 
the  shock  of  grafting.  Much  also  depends  upon  the 
manner  in  which  a  tree  is  grafted.  If  a  tree  has  been 
properly  pruned,  nearly  all  the  limbs  may  be  grafted.  If 
it  has  not,  many  beside  the  grafted  limbs  will  need  to  be 
removed  ;  and  if  the  tree  is  old,  and  especially  if  a  little 
feeble,  it  will  be  likely  to  suffer.    A  good  grafter  will  try 


62  FIELD    NOTES   OX    APPLE    CULTURE. 

\o  leave  enough  small  brush  in  the  center  of  the  tree  to 
screen  the  trunk  and  large  branches  from  the  hot  sun.  I 
have  often  known  trees  to  be  seriously  injured  by  sun- 
scald,  after  having  been  severely  pruned.  A  tree  which 
will  contain  seven  or  eight  stubs  under  the  old  system  of 
grafting,  will  contain  thirty  or  forty  under  the  newer 
system.  Two  objections  wall  at  once  be  raised  to  this 
method  :  as  grafters  charge  by  the  piece,  it  is  expensive  ; 
it  makes  the  top  too  high,  and  renders  the  main  branches 
pole-like.  To  the  first  objection,  I  reply  that  no  apple- 
grower  should  hire  a  grafter  ;  he  should  be  able  to  do  the 
grafting  him:elf,  or  else  his  boys  should  do  it.  Every 
farmer's  boy  should  learn  to  graft.  Few  occupations  give 
more  pleasure  or  yield  a  greater  reward.  To  convert  a 
wild  and  thorny  tree  into  one  bearing  large  and  delicious 
fruit  is  a  wonderful  and  fascinating  process.  The  sec- 
ond objection  is  a  more  serious  one.  I  have  seen  the 
larger  branches  of  top-grafted  trees  entirely  leafless  for 
seven  or  eight  feet,  and  crowned  with  a  bush.  Such 
trees  are  of  course  a  nuisance,  but  they  are  due  to  a 
bungling  grafter,  not  to  the  plan  of  grafting  many  limbs 
and  small  ones.  There  are  enough  side  limbs  on  the 
average  tree  which  can  be  grafted  to  correct  this  diffi- 
culty. If  there  should  not  be  side  limbs,  some  of  the 
sprouts  which  start  after  the  tree  is  grafted  may  be  en- 
couraged and  grafted  in  a  year  or  two.  One  must  not 
expect  an  old  tree  to  have  as  good  a  shape  after  grafting 
as  before.  It  can  sometimes  be  secured,  but  not  often. 
Old  and  long-neglected  trees  which  are  to  be  grafted, 
may  often  be  given  a  preparatory  pruning  for  two  or 
three  years  with  profit.     Unnecessary  limbs  can  be  better 


TOP-GRAFTING   OLD   APPLE    TEEES.  53 

cut  out  before  grafting  than  afterward  ;  for  after  the 
grafting  is  done,  and  so  much  of  the  top  removed, 
these  limbs  grow  rapidly  and  soon  sliow  a  marked  increase 
in  diameter.  So  much  of  the  tree  top  will  be  removed 
in  grafting,  that  the  unnecessary  limbs  should  not  be  cut 
away  for  two  or  three  years  or  more,  if  they  are  large. 
It  is  not  always  an  easy  matter  to  prune  a  grafted  tree 
properly.  The  ungrafted  limbs  must  be  gradually  re- 
moved, and  the  grafts  themselves  must  be  trained.  The 
ungrafted  limbs  should  be  annually  cut  away  in  about 
the  extent  to  which  the  grafts  grow,  or  a  little  more.  All 
suckers  should  be  pulled  off  as  they  form  during  the  sea- 
son, unless  there  is  noticed  a  tendency  to  sun-scald.  The 
suckers  may  then  be  needed  to  shade  the  trunk  and 
branches.  I  have  known  of  a  few  cases  in  which  nearly 
all  the  ungrafted  branches  were  taken  off  the  second 
year,  without  apparent  injury  to  the  tree,  but  I  have 
known  of  many  more  cases  in  which  such  treatment  has 
been  ruinous.  Improper  pruning  of  top-grafted  trees 
often  results  in  an  abundance  of  flat-headed  borers. 
When  the  tree  is  weakened,  borers  attack  it.  I  have 
several  times  observed  the  gradual  weakening  and  final 
death  of  large  trees  which  were  severely  top-grafted.  I 
have  so  often  seen  ill  results  follow  that  I  wish  to  dis- 
courage the  practice,  unless  all  conditions  are  favorable. 
I  have  often  grafted  old  trees  when  I  was  confident  that 
they  could  never  resist  the  operation,  although  their 
owners  would  not  believe  it  until  too  late.  If  the  tree  is 
not  perceptibly  lessened  in  vigor,  it  is  at  least  probable 
that  it  will  be  made  a  sprawling  and  unsatisfactory 
object. 


54  FIELD  NOTES  OK  APPLE  CULTURE. 

CHAPTER    XIV. 

LONGEVITY  OF  APPLE  TREES. 

**  Why  are  apple  trees  shorter  lived  than  they  were 
when  I  was  a  boy  ?"  asked  an  old  N'ew  England  farmer. 
**I  know  of  orchards  which  were  set  before  I  was  born, 
and  which  are  still  in  good  condition,  but  my  trees,  set 
forty  years  ago,  begin  to  show  signs  of  giving  out."  The 
causes  of  this  difference  in  the  longevity  of  fruit  trees 
are  obviously  three  :  the  nature  of  the  varieties  planted, 
the  kind  of  culture  given,  and  the  increased  severity  of 
the  winters.  1.  Nearly  all  the  old  orchards  are  com- 
posed of  seedling  trees.  Seedlings  are  hardier  than  most 
of  the  improved  varieties.  Westward,  and  esj)ecially  on 
the  prairies,  any  particular  variety  is  commonly  shorter 
lived  than  it  is  in  New  England.  It  is  probable  that  the 
varieties  which  have  originated  and  have  been  long  grown 
eastward  are  not  adapted  to  the  West.  2.  High  cultiva- 
tion, with  consequent  heavy  crops,  is  a  forcing  process, 
and  no  doubt  tends  to  lessen  the  longevity  of  trees. 
Trees  which  bear  light  crops  of  small  apples  approach 
the  wild  state,  and  are  not  worn  out  so  soon  as  highly 
cultivated  trees.  High  cultivation,  judiciously  applied, 
is  not  to  be  discouraged,  however,  for  a  short  life,  with 
an  abundance  of  good  fruit,  is  preferable  to  a  long  life 
with  less  and  inferior  fruit.  3.  As  the  country  becomes 
denuded  of  forests,  the  winter  climate  becomes  more 
rigorous.  As  a  consequence,  many  varieties  which  were 
formerly  regarded  as  hardy  are  now  destroyed.      The 


PICKING    FRUIT. — WHEN    TO    riCK.  55 

Baldwin  is  one  of  the  first  to  suffer.  The  remedy  lies 
chieHy  in  growing  windbreaks.  Prairie  climates  are 
especially  destructive,  and  any  natural  protection  for  the 
orchard  should  be  eagerly  souglit. 


CHAPTER    XV. 

PICKING  FRUIT.— WHEN  TO  PICK. 

I  know  of  no  pleasanter  transition  than  that  of  turn- 
ing from  the  elaborate  stagings,  ladders  and  fruit-pickers 
often  described  in  fruit  books,  to  the  simple  and  easy 
methods  of  fruit  harvesting  practiced  by  successful  grow- 
ers. There  are  three  things  essential  to  safe  and  rapid 
apple  picking  :  an  ordinary  light  step-ladder,  a  couple  of 
half-bushel,  round  bottom,  handled  baskets,  with  a  hook 
on  the  handles,  and  a  smart  boy  who  is  not  afraid  to 
climb.  The  ladder  is  the  least  essential  article  of  the 
three.  If  trees  are  properly  pruned,  they  will  allow  a 
man  with  a  basket  to  enter  the  top.  An  ordinary  iron 
hook  will  serve  to  hang  the  basket  on  a  limb  while  it  is 
being  filled.  Apple  limbs  are  strong,  and  they  will  hold 
a  boy  or  man  more  safely  than  is  genei'ally  supposed.  As 
a  general  thing,  a  boy  is  afraid  to  venture  far,  but  a  little 
training  will  enable  him  to  climb  well.  Nor  is  it  essen- 
tial that  the  boy  should  be  exceedingly  young  and  light 
in  order  to  reach  most  of  the  apples  on  a  high  tree.  It 
is  quickness  and  agility,  rather  than  lightness,  that  make 
a  good  apple  picker.  I  know  from  experience  that  a 
young  man  of  twenty-five  can  be  of  more  service  in  an 


56 


FIELD   IsOTES   OX   AI'l'LE   CLLTUEE. 


apple  tree  than  any  number  of  fruit-picking  machines. 
Professional  grafters  do  not  depend  upon  elaborate  lad- 
ders ;  they  climb.  The  fruit  picker  should  do  the  same. 
It  may  not  be  easy  work,  nor  safe  for  fine  shirts,  but  it  is 
rapid  and  successful,  nevertheless. 

When  one  basket  is  full  it  is  handed  down  and  another 


f% 


f 


Fig.  11.— PICKER.  Fif?.  12.— PICKER.  Fiar.  13— hook. 

one  returned.  A  bag  strapped  on  one's  back,  in  the 
manner  used  for  sowing  grass  seed,  is  usually  a  nuisance 
in  a  tree,  although  it  may  be  handy  on  a  step-ladder. 
The  more  one  practices  the  more  he  will  be  surprised 
with  his  ability  to  reach  apples  on  the  ends  of  limbs. 
There  will  be  some,  however,  which  he  cannot  reach.  If 
there  are  no  apples  on  the  ground,  nor  any  wheat  or  oat 


PICKING   FRUIT.— WHEN  TO   PICK.  5'? 

stubble,  these  few  apples  may  be  shaken  off  with  little 
danger.  If  a  fruit-picker  is  to  be  used  at  all,  here  is  the 
only  place  where  it  is  necessary,  in  picking  a  few  stray 
apples  wliich  liave  escaped  reach  or  notice.  For  this 
purpose  a  cheap  and  simple  picker  can  be  made  by  bend- 
ing a  stiff  wire  into  the  form  of  a  circle  six  inches  in 
diameter,  with  one  side  of  the  circle  prolonged  three 
inches  into  a  V-shaped  projection.  Upon  this  wire  sew 
a  cloth  bag  a  foot  or  so  deep,  and  fasten  it  to  a  pole  by 
the  end  opposite  the  V-shaped  extremity.  This  V-shaped 
projection  will  serve  as  a  corner  in  which  to  catch  the 
apple  and  pull  it  off,  allowing  it  to  fall  into  the  bag.  An 
excellent  picker,  as  represented  in  figure  11,  can  be  made 
from  stiff  wire  by  a  tinner.  The  span  across  the  top 
should  be  about  six  inches,  and  the  depth  from  eight  to 
ten  inches.  The  wires  should  not  be  more  than  a  half 
inch  apart  at  their  tips.  The  wires  being  more  or  less 
flexible,  the  apple  is  apt  to  draw  through  them  if  they 
are  not  close  together.  Care  should  also  be  taken  to 
have  the  implement  made  as  light  as  possible.  A  bung- 
ling mechanic  will  probably  use  too  much  solder.  An- 
other good  picker  is  pictured  in  figure  12.  It  is  pat- 
ented. This  implement  is  light,  durable  and  pleasant  to 
handle.  When  an  apple  lies  close  to  a  limb,  however,  it 
is  much  more  easily  removed  by  the  former  device  than 
by  this.  A  simple  flattened  hook  with  a  thin,  almost 
cutting  edge,  secured  on  the  end  of  a  pole  (figure  13)  is 
often  handy  for  pulling  off  stray  apples.  This  is  the  best 
implement  with  which  I  am  acquainted  for  thinning 
apples.  One  of  the  most  successful  orchardists  I  know 
makes  two  or  three  tours  of  his  orchard  every  week  in 


58  FIELD   XOTES   OK   APPLE   (JULTUKE. 

July  and  .August,  and  liooks  off  the  wormy  and  ill- 
formed  apples.  A  drove  of  hogs  follow  him  and  devour 
the  apples  and  worms.  I  sl)all  refer  to  this  practice  again 
in  the  discussion  on  the  codlin  moth.  This  practice  of 
thinning  fruit  is  a  profitable  one,  especially  in  the 
instance  of  such  heavy  bearers  as  the  Baldwin.  If  the 
tours  of  the  orchard  are  frequent,  the  work  of  thinning 
is  not  burdensome. 

WHEN  TO   PICK. 

In  general,  it  may  be  said  that  winter  apples  should  be 
picked  when  they  are  ripe.  Ripeness  is  shown  by  the 
color  of  the  apples,  and  by  the  ease  with  which  they  part 
from  the  tree.  When  sound  apples  begin  to  fall,  they 
are  ready  to  pick.  Apples  keep  longer  when  picked  before 
they  are  ripe,  but  such  apples  never  possess  the  rich  flavor 
and  the  crispness  of  fully  matured  fruit.  Sound  apples 
do  not  decay  until  they  are  over-ripe.  Immature  fruit 
ripens  slowly  during  the  winter,  and  does  not  soon  reach 
the  period  of  decay.  It  never  ripens  fully,  however,  and  it 
is  therefore  always  inferior.  It  withers  and  becomes  tough. 

While  mature  fruit  will  decay  sooner  than  immatnre 
fruit,  it  is  nevertheless  much  more  preferable.  Long- 
keeping  qualities  are  certainly  inferior  to  good  eating 
qualities.  Any  treatment  which  retards  the  over-ripen- 
ing of  mature  fruit  will  increase  its  long-keeping  qualities. 
Keeping  the  fruit  in  a  cold  place  is  the  best  ordinary  pre- 
ventive of  decay.  Fruits  which  are  over-ripe  when  har- 
vested have  already  entered  upon  the  period  of  decompo- 
sition, and  they  cannot  be  expected  to  keep  long.  There- 
fore, avoid  the  extremes.     I  never  knew  Baldwins  and 


PACKING   APPLES.  59 

Northern  Spys  to  keep  so  well  as  when  picked- near  the 
middle  of  October,  after  half  the  leaves  had  fallen. 
Professor  Lazenby  reports  an  experiment  in  picking  Bald- 
wins at  different  stages  of  maturity.  Those  picked  early 
kept  long,  but  wilted.  Those  picked  when  fully  ma- 
tured kept  well  and  Avere  excellent  in  quality.  Those 
picked  late  kept  poorly. 


CHAPTEE    XVI. 
PACKING  APPLES. 

It  matters  little  how  thoroughly  the  grower  may  have 
eared  for  his  trees  and  growing  fruit,  if  he  does  not  exer- 
cise the  same  or  even  more  scrupulous  care  in  the  hand- 
ling and  marketing  of  his  crop  he  will  fail  to  obtain  a 
profit.  Care  in  harvesting  and  marketing  is  fully  equiv- 
alent, probably  much  more  than  equivalent,  to  all  the 
other  labors  of  the  year  combined.  Still,  it  is  a  patent 
fault  with  our  orchardists  that  this  part  of  tlieir  business 
is  not  studied  closely. 

Apples  must  be  handled  Avith  care.  ''Handle  apples 
as  you  would  handle  eggs,"  is  good  advice.  Do  not  shake 
them  from  the  tree.  When  a  basket  is  handed  down 
from  the  tree  another  is  returned,  while  the  apples  in 
the  basket  are  sorted.  The  sorting  is  easily  done  by  hav- 
mg  an  empty  basket  at  one  hand  into  which  the  choice 
apples  are  placed,  while  the  culls  are  placed  in  a  pile  on 
the  ground.  An  experienced  man  can  sort  rapidly  and 
accurately.     The  choice  apples  are  commonly  placed  di- 


60  FIELD   KOTKS   ON   APPLE   CULTUKE. 

rectly  in  the  barrel.  Only  clean  barrels  should  be  used. 
Old  flour  barrels,  unless  carefully  washed  and  dried,  will 
usually  impart  a  musty  flavor  to  the  fruit  before  mid- 
winter, especially  if  the  air  in  the  storage  cellar  is  moist. 
The  first  apples  which  are  put  in  market  barrels  should 
be  '*  faced."  The  facing  consists  in  placing  two  or  three 
layers  on  the  lower  head  with  stems  down — tliat  is,  with 
stems  pointing  towards  the  head.  Clean,  bright  apples 
of  ordinary  size  should  be  selected  for  this  purpose.  The 
rest  of  the  apples  may  be  poured  into  the  barrels.  This 
pouring,  if  properly  done,  will  not  injure  the  apples. 
Eggs  can  be  poured.  Use  a  basket  with  a  swinging 
handle,  one  which  can  be  lowered  into  the  barrel  and 
turned  while  there,  and  hold  the  apples  back  with  the 
hand  so  that  they  will  not  pour  out  too  rapidly.  Two 
or  three  times  during  the  filling,  shake  the  barrel  gently 
to  settle  the  apples  firmly.  Face  the  upper  head  in  the 
same  manner  as  the  lower  one.  It  is  desirable  not  to 
head  up  the  barrel  at  once.  Cover  with  boards  to  keep 
out  rain,  and  let  the  barrels  stand  open  four  or  five  days. 
It  is  not  always  possible  to  cover  the  barrels,  however,  in 
which  case  they  may  be  headed  up  at  once  and  turned 
down  on  their  sides.  In  this  position  they  will  shed 
witer.  Thus  far  I  have  spoken  of  packing  out  of  doors. 
The  best  results  are  always  secured  under  cover.  A 
cheap  shed  which  will  not  leak  is  sufficient.  It  should 
be  erected  in  a  cool  and  shady  place,  as  on  the  north  side 
of  a  building.  The  apples  can  then  be  carted  to  the  shed 
in  the  baskets,  just  as  they  come  from  the  tree,  in  a 
spring  wagon.  If  baskets  cannot  be  had  in  sufficient 
quantity,  the  apples  can  be  emptied  from  the  pickers' 


PACKIXG    APPLES.  61 

basVets  into  small  boxes  in  tlie  wagon.  Excellent  boxes 
for  this  purpose  are  empty  grocer's  boxes  wliicli  will  hold 
about  a  bushel,  or  the  contents  of  two  baskets,  and  still 
not  be  so  full  as  to  prevent  other  boxes  being  set  on 
them.  A  hole  should  be  made  in  each  end  large  enough 
to  admit  the  hand.  Such  boxes  can  be  handled  with 
dispatch.  From  these  the  apples  can  be  sorted  into  bar- 
rels and  the  barrels  can  be  headed  up  at  leisure.  It  is 
imperative  that  the  ajjples  should  not  rattle  in  the  barrel 
after  it  is  headed.  Apples  shrink  a  little  after  they  are 
barrelled.  They  will  usually  sweat,  also.  Therefore, 
delay  the  heading  up  for  some  days.  The  barrel  should 
be  rather  more  than  full  when  the  head  is  put  in.  If 
the  ui)per  layer  of  apples  is  considerably  bruised,  no 
harm  will  result,  especially  if  the  head  is  soft  wood,  so 
that  the  juice  is  readily  absorbed.  It  is  better  to  jam 
these  apples  severely  than  to  allow  those  in  the  interior 
to  rattle.  If  the  heading  is  done  in  a  building,  a  lever 
press  of  simple  construction  does  good  work,  but  it  re- 
quires two  men,  one  to  press  and  one  to  adjust  the  head. 
A  lever  press  is  nothing  more  than  a  lever  under  a  girt 
with  the  barrel  for  a  fulcrum.  The  ordinary  screw  press 
is  troublesome.  It  persists  in  twisting  to  one  side  as  soon 
as  strong  pressure  is  applied.  This  may  be  remedied  by 
having  the  iron  standards  thick  and  stiff  and  by  securing 
a  long  set  in  which  the  screw  shall  work.  If  this  set  or 
thread  is  four  or  five  inches  deep,  and  if  the  wooden 
cross-bar  in  which  it  rests  is  correspondingly  thick  and 
heavy  and  well  secured  to  the  iron  standards,  the  press 
should  do  good  work.  I  have  never  seen  such  a  press  for 
sale  ;  it  must  be  made  to  order. 


02  FIELD   XOTES   OX   APPLE   CULTURE. 

Great  puius  must  be  taken  in  the  sorting.  Few  people 
are  aware  of  wbat  constitutes  a  first-class  apple.  8ueli 
an  apple  must  not  be  immature,  over-ripe,  wormy,  or 
otherwise  injured  in  any  part,  scabby  or  bruised.  Very 
small  apples  from  the  interior  of  the  tree  are  usually  im- 
mature. Large  and  highly  colored  apples  are  apt  to  be 
wormy,  over-ripe,  or  of  poor  quality.  With  some  ex])eri- 
ence,  one  can  be  able  to  tell  a  first-class  apple  by  its  feel- 
ing. First-class  apples  should  not  have  their  stems  pulled 
out.  Second-class  winter  apples  can  be  put  npon  the 
market  at  once  for  immediate  consumption. 

Winter  ajjples  should  be  picked  in  cool  weather,  and 
they  should  be  handled  on  the  shady  side  of  the  tree.  A 
detached  ajjple  will  ripen  very  rapidly  in  the  warm  sun, 
and  its  keeping  qualities  will  be  impaired.  In  order  to 
keep  apples,  bear  in  mind  the  fact  that  they  must  be 
kept  cool.  If  one  has  not  a  good  apple  cellar,  he  should 
store  them  in  a  shed  until  eold  weather,  or  in  any  cool 
building  which  has  windows  opening  to  the  northward 
and  none  to  the  southward  ;  in  short,  put  them  anywhere 
where  they  will  keep  cool.  If  the  apples  begin  to  assume 
a  yellowish  cast,  they  are  getting  too  ripe.  An  atmos- 
phere may  be  too  dry,  but  a  decidedly  moist  one  is  equally 
dangerous.  Some  cellars  keep  apples  Avell,  but  most  of 
them  do  not.  The  fruit  cellar  should  be  deep,  cool, 
clean,  well  ventilated,  and  should  have  a  northern  expos- 
ure. A  cellar  which  is  stoned  up  in  a  gravelly  soil,  with 
a  brick  or  gravel  floor,  should  keep  apples  well.  Keep 
the  north  windows  open  until  there  is  danger  of  freez- 
ing. Shut  them  up  on  wet  days.  Water  will  freeze 
before  apples  will.     If   a  person  has  a  good  cellar  for 


PACKING    APPLES.  63 

keeping  fruiu,  che  apples  may  be  taken  to  it  as  soon  as 
they  are  picked.  It  is  an  excellent  plan  to  store  apples 
on  shallow  shelves  in  cellars  if  one  has  the  room  and 
does  not  care  to  barrel  them  for  market  until  spring. 
They  can  then  be  sorted  at  any  time.  Cider  api)les 
should  be  left  on  the  ground  in  piles.  They  will  lose 
some  of  their  water  and  will  make  better  cider.  If  tliey 
freeze  a  little  on  top  they  will  not  be  damaged. 

If  the  house  cellar  will  not  keep  apples  well,  or  if  the 
quantity  of  apples  to  store  is  large,  a  fruit  cellar  should 
be  built  at  some  other  place.  Mr.  Horace  Rainey  details 
his  experience  in  keeping  apples  for  market  at  Columbia, 
Tennessee,  in  the  ''Spirit  of  the  Farm,"  from  which  I 
extract  as  follows  :  "In  the  fall  of  1882  I  excavated  a 
space  eight  feet  deep,  eight  wide,  and  sixty  feet  long ; 
this  I  walled  up  and  arched  over  with  a  nine-inch  wall 
of  brick.  Over  the  arch  I  put  a  coat  of  cement,  and 
over  this  I  placed  all  the  earth  from  the  excavation,  and 
at  intervals  in  the  arch  of  four  feet  I  built  small 
brick  chimneys,  or  ventilators,  which  came  out  above 
the  ground.  I  also  made  ventilators  in  each  end.  The 
door  I  placed  in  tlie  .north  end.  The  floor  I  also  laid  of 
brick.  The  cellar  being  completed,  the  next  question  is 
to  properly  store  the  apples  in  it  so  as  to  economize  in 
space. 

"  I  had  made  several  hundred  slat-boxes  or  crates,  each 
to  hoid  one  bushel.  These  I  carried  to  the  orchard  and 
left  as  many  as  necessary  under  each  tree.  Each  picker 
is  provided  witii  a  small  basket  and  a  ladder,  and  is  re- 
quired to  leave  off  his  shoes  or  to  wear  rubbers  ;  to  handle 
the  apples  carefully,  and  to  place  them  carefully,  one  at 


G-4  FIELD    NOTES    OX    APPLE    CULTURE. 

a  time,  in  the  boxes.  Tlie  boxes  are  hauled  in  spring- 
wagons  to  the  cellar,  and  placed  one  above  the  other  up 
to  the  top,  leaving  a  narrow  passage  down  the  center,  so 
as  to  enable  me  with  a  lantern  to  examine  their  condition 
at  any  time. 

'"The  advantages  of  the  slat-boxes  arc  many;  the 
principal  ones  are  thorough  ventilation,  economy  in 
space,  and  ease  of  handling  ;  and  when  ready  for  market, 
I  nail  a  few  slats  on  tlie  top,  and  the  api)les  are  ready 
to  ship.  The  boxes  are  much  cheaper  than  barrels,  and 
if  the  apples  are  highly  colored,  they  sell  much  better 
than  in  barrels. 

"  The  cellar  being  completed  and  filled,  I  watched  the 
experiment  with  a  great  deal  of  interest.  I  gathered  the 
apples  from  October  20th  to  November  10th,  according 
to  the  variety,  and  about  December  15th  I  overhauled 
them,  and  less  than  one  per  cent,  were  unfit  for  market. 
On  February  1st  I  overhauled  again,  preparatory  to 
placing  on  the  market.  I  found  about  two  per  cent, 
unfit  to  ship,  and  this  two  per  cent,  was  sold  for  more 
than  enough  to  pay  the  expense  of  overhauling.  The 
apples  paid  from  II  to  $2.50  per  box,  according  to  vari- 
ety, size,  and  color. 

"The  temperature  of  the  cellar  varied  but  slightly. 
During  the  winter  of  1882-3  the  lowest  was  thirty-eiglit 
degrees,  and  the  highest  was  forty-seven  degrees  ;  and 
the  past  winter,  which  we  all  know  was  extremely  severe, 
the  lowest  was  thirty-six  degrees.  *  *  *  *  Now, 
after  the  second  winter's  test,  I  am  glad  to  say  that  the 
cellar  has  sustained  its  well-deserved  reputation,  for,  up 
to  June  1st  I  had  seven  varieties  in  a  good  state  of  preser- 


PACKING    ArPLES.  65 

vation.  *  *  *  *  It  more  than  paid  for  itself  the 
first  season.  In  addition  to  an  apple-house,  I  use  it  dur- 
ing the  summer  months  for  milk  and  butter,  vegetables 
and  fresh  meats." 

Apples  can  be  buried,  something  after  the  manner  of 
potatoes,  with  good  success,  but  they  usually  decay  rap- 
iily  after  removal  from  the  pit.  They  usually  keep  well 
if  buried  after  they  are  barreled,  the  barrels  being  laid 
on  dry  ground  and  covered  deeply  with  straw.  As  win- 
ter sets  in,  cover  the  straw  with  earth,  using  just  enough 
to  prevent  freezing.  In  cities  apples  are  often  placed 
in  a  cold  attic  and  allowed  to  freeze  for  safe  keeping. 
If  they  remain  frozen  until  spring,  and  arc  then  al- 
lowed to  thaw  gradually  by  the  natural  rise  in  tempera- 
ture, they  will  not  be  injured.  It  appears  that  all  Avin- 
ter  varieties  cannot  be  kept  in  this  condition,  however. 
I  have  known  apples  to  be  frozen  solid  in  the  barrel,  but 
when  placed  in  a  cool  cellar  and  not  disturbed  until  the 
frost  had  entirely  left  them,  they  came  out  as  bright  and 
hard  as  ever,  and  kept  as  long  as  those  of  the  same  variety 
which  had  not  been  frozen. 


66  FIELD   2hOTES   02(    apple   CULTURE. 


CHAPTER    XVII. 

PROFITS    IN    APPLE    CULTURE.  —  SHALL   WE    PLANT 
MORE    ORCHARDS?— LOSSES    FROM   THEFT. 

There  are  several  reasons  why  apple  culture  is  not 
oftener  a  source  of  profit,  and  these  reasons  fall  under 
two  classes  :  errors  in  culture  and  errors  in  marketing. 
However  well  adapted  to  apple  growing  the  soils  and  sur- 
roundings may  be,  the  industry  is  bound  to  be  a  failure 
unless  uniform  good  culture  is  given  the  orchard.  There 
are  many  obstacles  in  the  way  of  producing  good  and 
marketable  fruit,  and  the  grower  must  know  how  to  over- 
come them.  These  obstacles  are  poor  varieties,  too  many 
varieties,  poor  cultivation,  neglect  and  carelessness  in 
pruning,  lack  of  thinning,  insect  enemies,  etc.  Every 
effort  must  be  made  to  secure  fruit  which  is  perfect  in 
shape  and  in  surface,  firm  in  texture,  and  free  from 
insects.  But  even  good  fruit  will  not  demand  a  good 
price  if  put  upon  the  market  in  poor  condition.  It 
must  not  only  be  sound,  but  it  must  be  attractive.  It  is 
safe  to  say  that  not  one  barrel  in  twenty  which  goes  into 
the  markets  of  our  large  cities  is  properly  packed.  Peo- 
ple must  learn  to  sort  their  apples  with  great  care  before 
putting  them  upon  the  market.  They  must  learn  to 
pack  them  snugly,  honestly  and  attractively. 

Even  in  years  of  heavy  crops,  good  apples,  nicely  packed, 
bring  good  returns.  This  is  especially  the  case  if  the 
grower  has  established  a  demand  for  his  fruit  by  care  in 
growing,  handling  and  packing.  Such  a  demand  is  easily 
secured  if  under  the  grower's  name,  or  name  and  trade- 


PROFITS   IX    APPLE    CULTURE.  67 

mark,  a  superior  and  uniform  quality  of  fruit  is  sold. 
The  following  figures  represent  actual  crop  sales  from 
a  large  orchard  :  In  1877,  the  crop  sold  for  $3  per 
barrel;  in  1878,  $2.75  and  $3;  in  1879,  $3;  1880, 
12,  $3.50  and  $3;  1881,  $2.75  and  $3.50;  1882,  $3. 
These  figures  do  not  include  the  culls  and  cider  apples, 
which  were  either  sold  to  applicants  from  local  markets 
or  were  made  into  cider  or  vinegar.  It  will  be  observed 
that  the  prices  averaged  about  the  same  for  each  year. 
These  are  not  jirices  made  to  a  few  local  customers,  but 
the  crop  was  put  upon  the  city  market,  where  it  com- 
peted with  other  fruit.  It  was  placed  in  the  hands  of 
competent  dealers,  however,  who  were  acquainted  with 
the  merits  of  the  fruit.  Tiie  prices  are  for  barrels  hold- 
ing two  and  tliree-quarter  bushels.  This  orchard  is  upon 
land  worth  $G0  an  acre,  and  it  will  return  more  money 
from  apples  at  twenty-five  cents  a  bushel  than  from 
wheat  at  $1  a  bushel,  although  it  is  in  a  good  wheat 
country.  "Leroy,"  in  a  recent  Philadelphia  "Press," 
makes  the  following  comment  upon  a  very  ordinary  apple 
tree:  "A  prolific  tree  ol  salable  apples  brings  much 
more  money  from  the  ground  it  occupies  than  would 
most  farm  crops.  On  a  medium  sized  tree  thirty  years 
old  the  owner  has  every  year  sold  eight  to  twelve  or  more 
bushels  of  fruit.  This  year  the  crop  was  eleven  bushels 
and  sold  readily  at  fifty  cents  a  bushel,  or  $5.50.  Assum- 
ing that  the  tree  occupies  fully  four  square  rods  of  ground, 
which  it  does  not,  here  are  $220  an  acre  for  a  single  year's 
product.  This  is  more  than  the  land  itself  is  worth. 
Eeally,  this  sum,  after  deducting  a  small  amount  for  ex- 
penses, represents  the  interest  on  the  amount  which  an 


68  FIELD   XOTES   OX    APPLE   CULTURE. 

acre  of  trees  equally  prolific  and  profitable  would  be 
-vorth." 

In  the  present  season  (1884)  of  cheap  fruits  even  good 
fall  apples,  packed  in  the  ordinary  careless  manner,  have 
brought  remunerative  prices.  Hubbardstons  have  sold 
in  the  Boston  markets  on  an  average  of  $1.50  a  barrel  net, 
and  Gravensteins  have  brought  from  $2  to  13.  It  is  still 
an  open  question  how  to  bring  the  producer  and  the  con- 
sumer closer  together.  Most  consumers  are  willing  to 
pay  good  prices  for  good  fruit,  no  matter  how  great  may 
be  the  supply  of  inferior  fruit.  Daring  the  season  of 
1884  Hubbardston  apples  have  retailed  rapidly  for  $1  to 
$1.50  per  bushel,  when  the  grower  received  $1.50  per 
barrel  for  them,  and  the  best  Gravensteins  have  sold  all 
along  for  $1.75  to  $2.75  and  upwards  per  bushel.  The 
dealer,  with  less  risk,  makes  a  greater  profit  than  the 
grower. 

In  years  like  this  prices  are  injured  by  the  great  quan- 
tities of  jjoor  fruit  put  upon  the  market.  It  is  time  for 
growers  to  understand  that  there  are  other  ways  of  dis- 
posing of  apples  advantageously  than  by  lumping  them 
all  off  to  the  Boston,  New  York  or  Chicago  market  as 
soon  as  they  are  picked.  The  markets  of  inland  towns 
are  often  more  satisfactory  for  limited  quantities  than  are 
those  of  the  great  cities.  It  is  safer  to  ship  only  the 
best  grade  of  green  fruit  and  to  make  other  grades  into 
cider,  vinegar  or  jellies,  or  to  evaporate  them.  The  ad- 
vent of  evaporators  has  opened  a  new  source  of  profit  to 
fruit  growers.  One  bushel  of  apples  will  yield  from  four 
to  eight  pounds  of  evaporated  fruit,  such  as  sold  in  job- 
bing lots  in  our  market  all  last  winter  for  twelve  and 


SHALL  "WE  PLANT  MOKE  OECHARDS  ?       69 

fifteen  cents  per  pound.  Under  the  most  favorable  cir- 
cumstances one  pound  of  the  evaporated  fruit  will  about 
pay  for  the  cost  of  evaporating  a  bushel.  Moreovei 
the  skins  and  cores  need  not  be  wasted.  A  bushel  wik 
give  about  three  and  a  half  pounds  of  skins  and  cores, 
and  these  sell  for  two  and  a  half  and  three  cents  a  ^jound 
for  making  into  jellies. 

Of  ordinary  apples  from  seven  to  twelve  bushels  are  re- 
quired for  a  barrel  of  cider.  Wholesale  dealers  are  now 
selling  cider  in  limited  quantities  at  ten  and  twelve  cents 
per  gallon.  At  present  prices,  cider  apples  certainly  ought 
to  bring  a  fair  return  beyond  the  cost  of  manufacturing. 
Cider  vinegar,  at  retail,  brings  about  a  half  moi-e  per  gallon ' 
than  cider,  and  it  is  generally  in  fair  demand,  though  in- 
ferior vinegars  seriously  interfere  with  its  sale.  The 
local  demand  for  cider  vinegar  is  usually  good  among 
those  who  appreciate  its  superiority.  Apple  butter  is 
coming  into  the  markets  to  some  extent,  and  were  it 
manufactured  in  sufficient  quantity  to  give  certainty  to  a 
market,  it  would,  no  doubt,  soon  come  into  general  de- 
mand at  good  prices. 

SHALL   WE    PLANT   MORE    ORCHARDS  ? 

This  is  a  perennial  question,  wiiich  presents  itself 
after  every  season  of  low  prices  in  fruits,  and  one  which 
acts  as  a  stumbling-block  to  the  general  farmer  and  fruit 
grower  alike.  The  impression  somehow  becomes  current 
that  the  prices  rendered  the  grower  from  metropolitan 
dealers  in  these  years  of  great  plenty  should  determine 
the  future  supply  of  fruit.  This  is  a  fallacy  which  needs 
correction.     The  farmer  is  bound  to  be  undeceived  if  he 


70  PIELD  NOTES   ON   APPLE   CULTURE. 

anticipates  a  uniform  success,  one  year  with  another, 
from  any  system  of  husbandry.  From  this  year's  mar- 
kets alone  the  wheat  farmer  has  more  reason  than  the 
frnit  grower  for  anticipating  an  uncertain  future,  still  I 
doubt  if  numy  grain  farmers  will  give  up  the  growiug  of 
wheat.  The  questions,  whose  answers  should  have  most 
weight  in  deciding  the  matter  of  planting,  relate  more  to 
the  adaptability  of  the  man  to  the  business,  of  the  soil  to 
the  health  and  productiveness  of  trees,  to  market  facili- 
ties, etc.,  than  to  the  state  of  the  market  in  a  single  year. 
It  should  be  borne  in  mind  that  good  fruit  is  nearly 
always  in  good  demand. 

The  most  complete  failures  I  ever  knew  in  fruit  grow- 
ing were  those  connected  with  men  who  had  no  native  taste 
for  the  occupation,  or  who  attempted  too  much.  While 
fruit  growing  is  not  a  difficult  branch  of  husbandry  to 
follow,  it  nevertlieless  requires  a  vigilance  and  a  certain 
adroitness  which  are  not  commanded  by  all  farmers,  and 
which  are  not  readily  adaptable  to  large  estates.  Tlie 
bungler  and  shiftless  farmer  are  entirely  out  of  place  in 
the  orchard.  Good  fruit  'growers  are  nearly  always  good 
observers ;  they  recognize  and  study  insects,  birds  and 
insidious  plant  diseases ;  they  exercise  great  care  in 
handling  and  marketing  their  produce.  A  successful 
orchard  is  commonly  planted  with  much  thought.  Trees 
are  perennial ;  they  ought  to  last  as  long  as  their  owner. 
They  cannot  be  cut  down  each  autumn  and  a  new  crop 
started  the  next  year.  It  is  the  lack  of  a  good  founda- 
tion, a  thoughtful,  well-pondered  beginning,  which  ren- 
ders half  our  orchards  unsatisfactory.  Almost  any  fruit 
grower  will  tell  you  that  he  would  have  made  money  by 


LOWES   Fi!OM   Tin: FT.  HI 

laying  a  better  foundation.  The  orchard  vvliicli  is  set  in 
hiiate  this  year,  will  probably  be  excelled  in  ten  years  by 
one  which  is  thoughtfully  planted,  three  years  from  now. 
The  fruit  grower  must  be  a  man  of  method. 

It  was  said  twenty-five  years  ago  that  apples  would  not 
be  worth  picking  in  ten  years  from  that  time,  and  there 
is  record  of  a  farmer  in  Western  New  York  who  cut  down 
an  orchai'd  of  ten  acres  because  of  that  supposed  fact. 
This  same  man  has  since  planted  an  orchard  of  twenty- 
five  acres,  and  is  said  to  be  getting  profitable  returns  for 
his  land  and  labor.  It  is  extravagant  to  suppose  that 
the  supply  of  apples  can  exceed  the  demand  in  this  coun- 
try. The  country  is  settling  up  much  faster  than  orchards 
are  being  grown,  and  there  are  large  portions  of  the  coun- 
try in  which  apples  can  never  be  grown,  but  where  they 
will  always  be  used. 

LOSSES   FROM   THEFT. 

In  some  places  more  fruit  is  lost  from  theft  than 
from  the  combined  depredations  of  injurious  insects.  It 
is  a  trouble,  also,  which  is  exceedingly  difficult  to  man- 
age. So  long  as  parents  neglect  to  teach  that  petty  lar- 
ceny of  fruit  is  no  less  a  theft  than  taking  a  man's 
money,  so  long  will  the  trouble  continue.  There  are 
always  some  families  in  the  neighborhood  in  which  such 
teaching  is  never  heard.  These  families  are  commonly 
the  ones  who  do  not  attend  the  meetings  of  fruit  grow- 
ers, who  do  not  attend  church,  and  who  do  not  take  a 
good  paper.  It  is  therefore  hard  to  reach  them.  It  is 
comparatively  easy  to  check  a  spirit  of  pilfering  when 
the  oifender  can  be  brouglit  to  hear  mild  discussions  or 


72  FIELD  NOTES  ON  APPLE  CULTUUB. 

teachings  upon  the  subject,  or  when  he  can  be  induced 
to  read  good  agricultural  papers.  As  such  offenders  can- 
not be  made  to  go  to  farmers'  meetings  or  to  other  public 
gatherings,  however,  I  have  thought  that  it  might  be  an 
experiment  worth  trying  to  send  to  them  agricultural 
papers  regularly.  Let  them  understand  how  much  of 
work  and  of  diflBculty  there  is  in  growing  crops,  what 
the  rights  of  the  farmer  are ;  in  short,  get  them  inter- 
ested in  a  progressive  agriculture,  and  it  appears  to  me 
that  some,  at  least,  would  be  influenced  for  the  better. 
For  other  reasons,  also,  I  have  sometimes  thought  that 
it  would  pay  an  intelligent  community  to  circulate  agri- 
cultural papers  among  the  poor  and  illiterate  families. 

The  attitude  of  a  grower  towards  all  with  whom  he 
may  come  in.  contact,  will  largely  determine  the  extent 
to  which  his  fruit  and  vegetables  will  be  pilfered.  A 
man  who  is  universally  disliked  may  expect  to  suffer.  I 
have  often  observed  that  college  students,  by  common 
consent,  do  not  pilfer  from  a  man  who  is  always  kind 
and  free-hearted,  while  their  attitude  towards  a  stingy  or 
disagreeable  man  is  quite  the  opposite.  I  once  knew  a 
man  who  placed  a  great  picket  fence  about  liis  orchard 
and  who  kept  armed  men  in  it  all  night,  and  I  also  knew 
many  idlers  who  experienced  the  keenest  delight  in  get- 
ting into  that  orchard.  A  neighbor  who  took  no  precau- 
tions lost  less  fruit.  In  a  neighboring  community  the 
fruit  growers  posted  in  public  places  the  law  concerning 
trespass,  and  they  reported  good  success  from  the  prac- 
tice. It  appears  to  me  that  there  is  no  subject  more 
worthy  of  occasional  discussion  in  farmers'  clubs,  in  the 
local  paper,  in  the  pulpit,  in  the  Sunday  school,  than 


WINTER  rilEPABATIONS.  To 

this.  It  is  not  a  subject  which  will  bear  much  malice 
or  personal  rebuke.  It  must  be  discussed  in  a  mild  and 
thouo-htful  manner. 


CHAPTER    XVIII. 
WINTER  PREPARATIONS. 

The  orchard  should  not  be  neglected  as  soon  as  the 
fruit  is  harvested.  During  winter,  trees  are  exposed  to 
wind,  ice,  water,  rabbits  and  mice.  Weak  or  cracked 
brandies  are  apt  to  be  broken  down  by  wind  and  ice. 
All  crotches  which  show  a  disposition  to  split  should  be 
tied  or  bolted  together.  "Weak  and  injured  limbs  should 
be  tied  up  or  cut  off.  Small  and  weak  trees  should  be 
staked. 

During  thaws,  water  will  settle  in  the  hollows.  See  to 
it  that  there  are  no  such  hollows  about  the  trees.  Level 
culture  is  the  best  safeguard  against  winter  and  spring 
injury  from  water.  Where  hollows  occur,  either  fill 
them  up,  or  provide  a  way  for  the  water  to  escape. 

If  the  orchard  and  surrounding  fields  are  kept  clear  of 
brush  heaps  and  other  rubbish,  rabbits  will  not  make 
much  trouble.  Slovenly  fence  rows  afford  good  winter- 
ing places  for  rabbits.  Unless  the  snow  drifts  into  the 
branches,  these  pests  will  not  injure  large  trees.  A  good 
dog  is  a  good  remedy  for  rabbits,  but  I  should  prefer  to 
employ  other  means  of  getting  rid  of  them,  and  dispense 
with  the  dog  altogether.  I  have  melted  sulphur  and 
poured  it  over  small  pieces  of  cloth,  which  were  fastened 


74  FIELD  NOTES  ON  APPLE  CULTURE. 

to  sticks  and  placed  promiscuously  through  the  orchard, 
and  rabbits  did  not  annoy  me.  Blood  and  various  ani- 
mal substances  smeared  on  the  trees  will  keep  rabbits 
away. 

Mice  are  a  worse  evil  than  rabbits.  Their  work  is  not 
often  discovered  until  too  late  to  be  avoided.  Clean  cul- 
ture is  a  good  preventive  of  injuries  by  mice.  Mice  de- 
light in  high  grass,  which  bends  under  the  snow,  and  in 
all  litter  which  accumulates  about  tlio  tree.  They  are 
especially  fond  of  corn  shocks  about  trees.  If  a  loose 
mulch  remains  about  the  tree,  they  will  be  Hkely  to  dis- 
cover it.  Therefore,  keep  the  base  of  the  tree  clean. 
Remove  all  grass  and  litter,  or  cover  it  up  with  soil  and 
pack  it  down  firmly.  In  Northern  New  England,  where 
the  paper  birch  grows  abundantly,  it  is  a  favorite  practice 
to  peel  strips  of  bark  two  feet  long  and  place  them  about 
the  trees.  This  bark  soon  curls  up  tightly  about  the 
tree,  and  protects  it. 


INJUKIOUS   INSECTS.  '^5 

CHAPTER    XIX. 
INJURIOUS  INSECTS. 

Numerous  insects  prey  upon  the  apple  orchard.  In 
fact,  Professor  Lintner  catalogues  one  hundred  and  sev- 
enty-six such  pests.  Fortunately,  comparatively  few  of 
these  are  yet  seriously  troublesome,  and  it  is  not  probable 
that  many  more  will  become  pests  over  any  great  extent 
of  territory.  There  are  more  species  of  injurious  insects 
apparent  now  than  there  were  a  half  century  ago.  This 
is  due  in  part  to  the  introduction  of  insects  from  the  Old 
World,  and  in  part  to  the  taking  on  of  new  habits  by 
native  insects.  The  disagreeable  apple  maggot,  which 
has  attracted  so  niucli  attention  of  late,  was  first  known 
as  breeding  on  the  wild  hawthorns,  but  it  took  on  a  new 
habit  of  attacking  cultivated  apples,  and  it  has  thrived 
upon  its  new  diet. 

In  order  to  combat  insect  enemies  the  orchardist  must 
acquaint  himself  with  the  general  natural  history  of  in- 
sects, their  common  habits  and  tlie  best  means  of  destroy- 
ing them.  He  must  read  and  study.  lie  must  also  bo 
vigilant.  He  should  seek  for  preventives  in  preference 
to  remedies.  A  clean  orchard  is  necessary.  Keep  down 
weeds  and  remove  rubbish  and  do  not  allow  the  fence- 
rows  to  grow  up  with  promiscuous  vegetation. 

He  must  destroy  the  wild  food  plants  of  insects.  This 
is  a  subject  which  has  a  very  important  bearing  on  fruit 
growing,  and  one  which,  it  appears  to  me,  does  not  re- 
ceive the  attention  it  deserves.  The  continued  prevalence 
of  injurious  insects  in  some  localities  where  there  has 


76  PIELD   NOTES   OX   APPLE   CULTURE. 

been  a  general  concert  of  action  to  destroy  them,  can  ne 
accounted  for  in  no  other  way  than  by  supposing  that 
they  breed  on  wild  plants.  Many  orchardists  have  found 
that  a  hawthorn  hedge  has  been  an  expensive  luxury  by 
breeding  apple  tree  borers  and  other  insects.  Now  that 
the  disgusting  apple  maggot  has  spread  itself  over  so  wide 
an  extent  of  country,  it  becomes  important  that  we  de- 
stroy the  wild  liawthorns.  To  those  who  love  the  wild 
plants  which  decorate  our  copses  and  tangles,  this  de- 
struction of  havv^thorns  and  other  bushes  will  come  as  a 
hardship ;  but  it  is  to  be  remembered  that  utility  must 
come  before  beauty.  Moreover,  those  who  admire  the 
hawthorns  can  plant  them  and  keep  off  the  insects. 
The  wild  crab  breeds  the  Codlin  Moth.  The  wild  cherry 
is  perhaps  the  favorite  food  plant  of  the  destructive  Tent 
Caterpillar. 

Not  only  do  some  wild  plants  breed  orchard  insects,  but 
they  are  not  infrequently  the  means  of  causing  little 
known  insects  to  multiply  so  rapidly  as  to  take  on  new 
habits  and  overrun  the  farm.  I  have  in  mind  a  pain- 
ful instance.  In  Western  Michigan  a  swamp  of  Avild 
roses  bred  the  rose  chafer.  "The  insects  were  noticed  by 
residents  in  the  vicinity  for  some  years,  it  is  said.  The 
insects  multiplied  to  such  an  extent  that  the  swamps 
could  no  longer  hold  them,  and  they  overran  small  fruits 
and  orchards  for  miles  about  in  the  most  destructive  man- 
ner. Over  a  considerable  area  these  insects  have  been 
the  most  serious  of  orchard  pests  for  some  years. 

Information  concerning  insects  is  now  easily  obtained. 
The  scope  of  these  notes  allows  me  to  discuss  only  the 
most  injurious  pests,  the  Borers  and  the  Codlin  Moth, 


BOREKS. 


7? 


CHAPTER    XX. 


BORERS. 


An  attack  of  borers  is  Lo  be  suspected  as  soon  as  a  tree 
begins  to  show  a  gradual  diminution  of  vigor.  If  borers 
are  present,  one  will  discover  little  masses  of  chips  pushed 
out  from  small  holes  about  the  base  or  along  the  trunk  of 
apple,  pear  and  quince  trees,  or  wax  at  the  base  of  peach 
trees,  or  he  will  observe  dead  and  discolored  patches  on 
the  bark.  The  damage  done  by  borers  is  so  permanent 
in  its  character  that  the  orchardist  should  exercise  every 


Fiff.  14. 

BEETLE  OF  ROUND-HEADED  BORER. 


Fig.  15. 

THE  ROUND-HEADED  BORER. 


care  to  prevent  an  attack.  Neatness  about  the  trees  will 
enable  the  grower  to  discover  an  attack  before  it  has  done 
great  damage.  A  wash  made  after  the  following  recipe, 
and  applied  to  the  tree  with  a  broom  or  brush,  is  a  general 
preventive  of  attacks  from  borers  :  Water,  one  gallon  ;  soft 
soap,  one  ([uart ;  crude  carbolic  acid,  about  one  pint. 

ROUND-HEADED    APPLE   TREE   BORER. 

This  insect  {Saperda  Candida)  commonly  begins  its  work 
about  the  base  of  the  apple,  pear  or  quince  tree,  although 
it  is  occasionally  found  in  the  branches.  Its  presence  is 
indicated,  especially  after  the  first  year,  by  the  chips  which 


78  FIELD   NOTES  0^^  APPLE  CULTURE. 

are  pushed  from  its  burrows.  The  larva  or  grub  lives  three 
years.  When  full  grown  (figure  15)  it  is  about  an  inch 
long,  nearly  cylindrical,  whitish  or  often  tinged  with 
yellow.  The  pretty  brown  and  white  striped  parent 
beetle  (figure  14)  is  commonly  nocturnal  in  its  habits, 
and  is  therefore  seldom  seen  by  the  casual  observer. 

If  one  would  know  the  whole  life  history  of  this  insect, 
he  will  be  obliged  to  watch  it  three  years,  and  to  follow 
it  from  an  egg  laid  on  the  bark,  through  a  tiny  opening 
into  the  sapwood,  through  a  gradually  enlarging  channel 
tending  inwards  and  upwards,  and  finally  reaching  its 
termination  just  beneath  the  bark.  Tliere  the  insect 
would  be  at  the  end  of  nearly  three  years,  a  motionless 
pupa,  wrapped  in  a  cocoon  of  its  own  chips.  During  the 
first  year  the  grub  works  in  the  soft  sapwood,  just  under- 
neath the  bark,  but  about  the  beginning  of  its  second 
year  it  enters  the  hard  wood.  Sometimes,  however,  the 
tunnel  is  nearly  superficial  for  its  whole  length.  Daring 
two  winters  the  insect  remains  in  the  tree  as  a  grub,  but 
before  the  third  winter,  it  has  changed  into  a  pupa,  and 
lies  in  its  cocoon  until  the  following  spring,  when  it  be- 
comes a  beetle.  The  pupa  sometimes  transforms  into  a 
beetle  before  warm  weather  appears,  and  the  beetle  will 
then  lie  in  tlie  burrow  until  awakened  by  the  warmth  of 
May  or  June.  It  then  gnaws  a  smooth,  round  hole 
through  the  bark,  and  escapes  at  night.  Evidently 
aware  of  the  ill  repute  in  which  it  is  held,  the  beetle 
hides  itself  during  the  day,  and  at  night  flies  about 
the  orchard,  bent  upon  mischief.  It  is  occasionally 
met  with  in  the  daytime.  All  tlirough  June  and  July 
it  lingers  about  the  orchard,  but  before  the  summer 


BORERS.  79 

is  over  it  is  dead.  Before  its  final  departure,  however, 
it  has  made  an  ample  record.  The  female  has  laid  her 
eggs  in  the  crevices  of  the  bark,  usually  about  the  base  of 
the  apple  tree  or  pear  tree  or  the  quince  bush.  If  culti- 
vated fruit  trees  are  not  abundant,  she  has  probably 
sought  out  their  nearest  relatives,  the  Mountain  Ash,  the 
June  berry  and  the  wild  thorns.  By  early  fall,  perhaps 
as  early  as  July,  the  eggs  have  hatched,  and  the  young 
legless  grubs  have  entered  upon  their  work  of  destruc- 
tion. It  sometimes  happens  that  the  tree  does  not  show 
strong  signs  of  debility  for  a  couple  of  years  or  more.  In 
the  meantime,  it  may  have  been  extensively  channelled, 
and  limbs  an  inch  and  less  in  diameter  may  have  been 
tunnelled.  Finally,  the  tree  begins  to  die,  or  a  strong 
wind  breaks  it  down.  When  a  tree  is  thus  past  recovery, 
it  should  be  burned.  Short  pieces  of  limbs  may  be  put 
into  a  box,  covered  with  a  wire  screen,  and  if  the  larv* 
are  well  matured,  the  striped  beetles  may  be  secured.  In 
the  Eastern  States  this  borer  is  abundant.  It  has  been 
my  observation  that  in  Michigan  and  westward  it  is  less 
common. 

PREVENTIVES. 

Attacks  of  borers  can  be  prevented  by  a  liberal  use  of 
the  carbolic  soap  wash.  The  wash  should  be  applied  early 
in  June  and  again  near  the  last  of  the  month,  or  early  in 
July.  All  shreds  of  rough  bark  should  be  removed  before 
the  wash  is  applied.  Especial  care  should  be  exercised  to 
make  a  thorough  application  about  the  crown  of  the  tree. 

A  small  mound  of  ashes  or  lime,  placed  aboit  the  base 
of  the  tree  in  spring,  is  an  old  preventive ;  but  as  the 


80  FIELD   NOTES   ON   APPLE   CULTURE. 

beetle  sometiuxes  lays  its  eggs  on  the  upper  trunk  or 
branches,  it  is  not  to  be  relied  upon. 

Tying  heavy  brown  paper  about  the  base  of  the  tree 
for  a  distance  of  two  or  three  feet  above  the  ground,  and 
smearing  the  paper  with  coal  tar  is  often  recommended. 

REMEDIES. 

When  the  chips  are  discovered,  procure  a  flexible  wire, 
or  peel  the  bark  from  a  small  twig  and  thrust  it  into  the 
hole.  A  wire  which  is  set  into  a  handle  will  be  found 
convenient.  A  peculiar  pressure  will  tell  you  when  you 
have  struck  the  grut.  When  the  grub  has  once  reached 
the  hard  w6od,  it  is  a  barbarous  practice  to  whittle  it 
out  with  a  jackknife.  The  grubs  are  easily  killed  during 
the  first  year  after  they  begin  work,  especially  in  the  fall. 
During  that  time  they  work  just  underneath  the  bark, 
eating  out  irregular  burrows  as  large  as  a  half-dollar.  If 
more  than  *'>ne  borer  should  attack  the  tree,  it  may  be 
well-nigh  girdled  the  first  year.  Before  the  chips  of  the 
borer  appear,  a  drop  of  brown  sap  may  be  seen  exuding 
from  each  hole.  One  can  readily  see  just  where  the 
young  borer  is,  and  can  kill  it  by  using  the  jioint  of 
a  knife. 

AYoodpeckers  often  destroy  many  borers  while  the  grub 
is  working  just  under  the  bark.  I  have  frequently  seen 
them  digging  out  the  borers  in  winter. 

The  beetles  secrete  themselves  in  the  tree  during  the 
day,  and  they  may  be  jarred  down  upon  sheets  in  the 
manner  of  catching  curculios.  They  are  not  attracted  by 
lights  at  night  to  any  extent. 

N.  S.  Smith,  Buffalo,  N.  Y.,  published  a  remedy  nearly 


BORERS.  81 

thirty  years  ago,  and  I  transcribe  it  with  the  recommend- 
ation that  if  used  it  be  done  cautiously  :  ''Make  a  con- 
cave mound  of  mellow,  earth  around  the  tree,  rising  about 
six  inches  above  the  work  of  the  insects.  Thoroughly 
saturate  this  mound  with  a  strong  salt  brine,  twice  at  an 
interval  of  four  weeks,  at  any  time  of  the  year  when  the 
ground  is  not  frozen.  Stale  beef  or  pork  brine  in  its  full 
strength  is  just  the  thing.  The  mound  of  earth  holds 
the  liquid  in  suspension  round  the  tree  until,  by  capillary 
attraction,  it  is  carried  into  the  holes  and  borrows  of  the 
insect,  where  the  salt  is  sure  destruction  to  this  ravaging 
and  pestilent  enemy.  Vary  the  quantity  of  the  dose  with 
the  size  of  the.  tree.  Be  cautious  with  small  trees.  Old, 
large  trees,  three  feet  round,  may  have  a  pailful  at  a  time. 
I  have  revived  trees  by  this  application  from  apparent 
death.  Apple  trees  thirty  years  old,  Avitli  their  trunks 
perforated  very  badly,  are  now  perfectly  healthy,  and 
their  wounds  are  healing  over." 

A  correspondent  of  the  "Horticulturist,"  1846,  rec- 
ommends injecting  a  solution  of  potash  into  the  holes  of 
the  borer  by  means  of  a  small  syringe.  Two  pounds  of 
potash  is  to  be  dissolved  in  a  gallon  of  water. 

A  small  gouge  and  a  mallet  are  often  used,  the  wound 
which  is  made  by  the  gouge  being  securely  waxed  over. 
This  harsh  remedy  is  to  be  employed  only  when  the  grub 
has  burrowed  far  into  the  wood,  and  where  it  is  impossi- 
ble to  reach  it  with  the  wire  or  twig. 

SPOTTED  BORER  (Sapevda  cretafa). 

This  (figure  16)  is  closely  allied  to  the  preceding,  and 
in  its  habits  is  scarcely  to  be  distinguished  from  that 


82  FIELD   NOTES  OX   APPLE   CULTURE. 

insect.  It  is  not  generally  kno'wn.  On  account  of  its 
close  resemblance  to  the  Eound-lieaded  Borer  it  has 
probably  been  overlooked.  It  has  been  observed  by  Mr. 
H.  Osborn  in  Iowa,  and  by  Professor  A.  J.  Cook  in  Micli- 
igan.  Professor  Cook's  description  of  the  insect  is  here 
quoted  : 

"  Super  da  cretata  has  hardly  a  mention  in  our  current 
literature  on  economic  entomology,  and  yet  I  find  that  in 
Central  Michigan  it  is  quite  as  common  and  destructive  as 
Saperda  Candida.  *  *  *  *  This  beetle,  like  Saperda 
Candida,  is  from  three-fourths  to  seven-eighth 3  of  an  inch 
long,  and  brown,  marked  with  white, 
though  the  white  is  not  so  prominent, 
and,  instead  of  white  lines,  it  is  only 
represented  by  lines  across  the  thorax 
and  white  spots  on  each  elytra  or  wing 
cover,  one  in  the  middle,  notched  in 
both  ends,  and  one  near  the  tip,  notch- 
Fig.  16.— SAPERDA  od  or  crescent-shaped  on  the  inner 
CBETATA.  posterior  angle.     The  head,  antennae 

and  legs  are  all  brown,  while  a  broad,  brown  central  stripe 
extends  along  the  entire  length  of  the  ventral  or  under 
surface  of  the  thorax  and  abdomen.  In  Saperda  Candida 
the  head  is  striped  above  on  each  side  with  white,  wliile 
the  antennae,  legs  and  entire  under  surface  are  white. 
The  cylindrical,  footless  larva  and  the  pupa  are  almost 
entirely  alike  in  both  species,  as  are  also  the  habits.  The 
eggs  are  laid  in  June  on  the  trunk  and  main  branches  of 
apple  trees,  wild  crab-apples,  June  l)erry  and  wild  thorn." 
Four  or  five  years  ago  Mr.  Osborn  wrote  as  follows  re- 
garding the  habits  of  the  Spotted  Borer : 


83 


"  The  eggs  are  evidently  laid  in  pairs,  half  an  inch  or 
more  apart  along  tlie  branch,  the  larvae  of  each  pair,  uiton 
hatching,  working  in  opposite  directions  aronnd  the 
branch,  at  first  just  beneath  the  bark,  but  aftcrv.ard 
(probably  after  the  first  year)  entering  the  liard  wood." 

The  preventives  and  remedies  recommended  for  th.e 
Round-headed  Borer  are  to  be  used  for  this  insect. 

FLAT-HEADED  BOKER  {ChrysohofJiris femorato). 

The  presence  of  this  borer  is  usually  indicated  by 
(lark  and  dead  patches  on  the  bark  of  apple,  pear  and 
peach  trees.  It  is  an  insect  no  less  pernicious  than 
the  old  Saperda.  The  grub,  with  its  enormously  flat- 
tened anterior,  usually  burrows  just  underneath  the  bark, 
although  it  occasionally  enters 
the  hard  wood.  Its  tunnels  are 
flattened,  and  by  this  character 
are  at  once  distinguished  from 
those  of  the  Round-headed  Borer. 
The  work  of  this  borer  tells  sooner 

Fig.  17.  Fig.  18.-FLAT. 

upon  the  tree,  and  in  weakened  the  beetle,  headed bobeb. 
trees  it  is  more  fatal,  than  that 

of  the  other  insect.  It  usually  attacks  trees  upon 
the  south  side,  or  on  the  side  towards  the  prevailing 
winds,  or  in  other  places  where  injuries  are  apt  to  occur. 
It  nearly  always  attacks  trees  which  are  weakened,  such 
as  those  recently  transplanted  or  top-grafted.  Newly  set 
trees  should  therefore  be  watched  closely.  The  eggs  of 
the  Chrysolothris  are  laid  on  the  bark  from  early  June 
until  August.  The  young  grub  eats  through  the  bark 
and  matures  rapidly,  for  the  next  spring  it  transforms 


84  FIELD   NOTE?   ON   APPLE  CULTURE. 

into  a  compact  and  shining  dark  beetle,  as  represented  in 
figure  17.  These  beetles  have  a  coppery  lustre  under- 
neath, and  I  have  heard  them  called  "  copper  bottoms." 
They  vary  in  size.  They  are  commonly  about  three- 
fourths  of  an  inch  long.  In  the  Middle  and  Western 
States  this  insect  is  abundant. 

Dr.  Asa  Fitch  first  described  the  Flat-headed  Borer  in 
1856  as  attacking  apple  trees.  Its  appearance  in  apple 
trees  was  at  that  time  so  recent  that  he  could  not  obtain 
much  information  concerning  it.  The  insect  had  long 
been  known  as  attacking  oaks,  and  it  was  probably  the 
destruction  of  these  timber  trees  which  caused  it  to 
attack  the  apple  tree.  As  late  as  Flint's  edition  of  Harris' 
Injurious  Insects  (1862)  it  was  not  known  to  attack  apple 
trees  in  Massachusetts,  although  it  was  not  uncommon 
on  oaks,  and  it  had  been  found  "upon  and  under  the 
bark  of  peach  trees." 

PREVENTIVES. 

The  soap  wash  recommended  for  the  Round-headed 
Borer  is  equally  effective  here. 

I  believe  that  the  best  preventives  of  the  attacks  of  the 
Flat-headed  Borer  are  tidiness  about  the  orchard  and 
good  cultivation.  I  have  observed  that  the  borer  nearly 
always  attacks  neglected  ti-ecs.  Those  which  have  stood 
in  grass  for  some  years,  and  which  have  not  been  prop- 
erly pruned,  are  especially  liable  to  attack.  A  smooth, 
clean,  tidy  bark  is  commonly  an  indication  of  thriftiness, 
and  borers  do  not  attack  it.  If  the  trunk  of  the  tree 
crooks  abruptly  to  the  northward,  the  sun  beats  upon 
:he  more  exposed  point  and  produces  an  enfeebled  condi- 


BORERS.  85 

tion.  At  such  points,  or  in  other  weak  places,  the  borers 
are  nearly  always  found.  The  majority  of  all  the  trees 
which  I  have  known  to  be  infested  with  these  borers  had 
crooked  trunks. 

REMEDIES. 

The  Flat-headed  Borer  is  easily  destroyed  by  crushing 
after  the  dead  bark  is  removed.  ,  The  bark,  being  dead, 
is  of  no  more  use  to  the  tree,  and  it  had  better  be  cut  off; 
otherwise  it  soon  becomes  loose,  and  affords  a  hiding- 
place  for  insects.  If  the  denuded  surface  is  large,  it 
should  be  protected  by  wax  or  by  cow  dung,  tied  on  with 
cloths.  Newly-set  trees  are  soon  ruined  by  an  attack, 
and  they  should  be  examined  every  month  from  July  to 
October. 

C.  Baker,  in  '^  Kansas  Farmer,"  recommends  the  use 
of  kerosene  oil,  freely  poured  on  the  bark,  as  a  remedy 
for  borers. 


86  FIELD  KOTES  OJf  APPLE  CULTURE. 

CHAP  TEE    XXI. 
THE    CODLIN    MOTH. 

The  pretty  little  moth  {Carpocapsa  pomonella),  repre- 
sented at  natural  size  in  figure  19,  is  the  parent  of  the 
apple  worm.  It  is  a  European  insect, 
introduced  into  this  country  in  the  early 
part  of  this  century.  Very  few  apple 
growers  are  acquainted  with  the  moth.  Fig.  19.-cod- 
as  it  flies  at  night.  The  outer  wings  are  ^'^  ^^'^^• 
marked  with  irregular  and  ill-defined  transverse  streaks 
of  gray  and  brown,  and  on  the  end  they  bear  a  brown, 
bronze-streaked  spot.  The  inner  wings  and  abdomen 
are  light  yellowish  brown.  The  moth  flies  with  its 
body  in  a  nearly  perpendicular  position.  There  are 
many  moths  or  *' millers,"  which,  to  the  unpracticed 
eye,  closely  resemble  this,  and  which  are  confounded 
with  it.  Hence  arise  the  erroneous  statements  that 
the  codlin  moths  are  attracted  by  lights,  and  that  they 
have  been  captured  in  great  quantities  in  preparations  of 
sweetened  water,  etc. 

The  moth  makes  its  appearance  about  the  time  that 
the  apple  blossoms  appear.  A  moth  lays  about  fifty  eggs, 
according  to  Mr.  Saunders.  A  single  egg  is  laid  in  the 
*'  blossom  end  "  of  the  young  apple,  and  in  about  a  week 
it  hatches,  and  the  young  larva  eats  its  way  into  the 
apple.  In  three  or  four  weeks  the  larva  is  full  grown,  and 
it  leaves  the  apple  to  find  a  hiding  place  under  the  rough 
bark,  where  it  may  spin  its  cocoon  and  make  the  wonder- 
ful transformation  into  a  moth.     The  second  moth  of 


BOKERS.  8"? 

the  season — the  second  brood — repeats  the  operation  of 
the  first  one,  and  the  second  brood  of  larvae  is  hatched. 
The  second  larvae  do  not  transform  into  moths  until  the 
following  spring.  Now,  it  so  happens  that  all  moths  do 
not  appear  at  the  same  time  in  spring,  so  that  there  is  a 
succession  of  larvae  in  each  brood.  This  accounts  for 
the  fact  that  on  the  same  day  one  may  find  larvae  of  all 


PKEVENTIVE. 

The  only  preventive  with  which  I  am  acquainted  is  a 
systematic  concert  of  action  on  the  part  of  all  wlic  grow 
apples  to  destroy  the  insects.  In  fact,  it  is  almosf-  use- 
less, or  certainly  discouraging,  to  make  war  upon  any 
insect  nuisance  if  one's  neighbors  persist  in  making;  no 
effort  in  the  same  direction.  This  prevention  is  rather 
in  the  nature  of  a  remedy,  however. 

REMEDIES. 

As  there  is  no  method  of  trapping  the  moth,  we  must 
confine  our  remedies  to  the  worm  or  larva.  The  old 
remedy  is  to  avail  ourselves  of  the  opportunity  afforded 
when  the  larva  leaves  the  apple  and  rolls  up  in  its  cocoon. 
Kemove  the  rough  bark,  as  recommended  on  page  44, 
and  place  a  strip  of  woolen  cloth,  four  or  five  inches  wide, 
about  the  trunk.  Under  this  cloth  the  insects  will  hide. 
In  warm  weather  the  transformation  from  the  larva  to 
the  moth  will  take  place  in  nine  days  ;  in  cooler  weather 
the  time  varies  to  fifteen  days.  The  bands  should  be  put 
on  early  in  June,  and  during  warm  weather  they  should 
be  examined  about  every  eight  days.     Many  of  the  last 


88  FIELD  ifOTES  ON  APPLE   CUTTUEE. 

brood  will  be  taken  to  the  cellar  with  the  apples,  and 
they  will  hibernate  in  crevices  there.  I  have  found  them 
in  great  numbers  under  the  hoops  and  between  the  staves 
of  apple  barrels  in  the  cellar.  In  spring  the  transforma- 
tion takes  place  and  the  moths  escape  through  the  win- 
dows. It  is  therefore  very  important  that  the  cellar 
windows  and  doors  should  be  provided  with  fine  wire 
screens.  Upon  these  screens  the  moths  can  be  killed  as 
they  endeavor  to  escape. 

The  greater  number  of  the  worms  leave  the  fruit  before 
it  falls.  Hogs  do  not  destroy  them  in  quantity,  therefore, 
unless  the  apples  have  vrey  recently  fallen.  Under  the 
discussion  on  picking  fruit,  page  57,  I  have  referred  to  a 
convenient  method  of  thinning  apples  by  means  of  a  sharp 
hook  (figure  13).  If  hogs  run  in  the  orchard  they  will 
soon  learn  to  follow  the  operator  and  pick  up  the  apples 
as  soon  as  they  fall.  Inasmuch  as  thinning  is  a  necessity 
to  profitable  results  in  most  cases,  it  becomes  an  econom- 
ical method  of  destroying  the  apple  worm.  If  this  prac- 
tice were  generally  pursued  in  connection  with  the  appli- 
cation of  bands,  and  the  use  of  the  following  remedy,  I 
am  confident  that  this  pest  would  soon  be  lessened. 

A  remedy  proposed  of  late  is  to  syringe  the  trees  with 
a  mixture  of  Paris  green  and  water,  very  early  in  the 
season,  while  the  young  apples  stand  erect.  The  poison 
lodges  in  the  "blossom  end"  and  destroys  the  first  brood 
of  worms.  Later,  when  the  apples  turn  downward,  the 
poison  is  washed  out  by  the  rains.  This  remedy  was 
proposed,  and  its  entire  success  demonstrated,  by  Pro- 
fessor A.  J.  Cook,  of  the  Michigan  Agricultural  College. 
A  tablespoonful  of  poison  to  a  gallon  of  water  is  sufiicient. 


INDEX. 


Age  for  Planting.. 23 

Alexander 20,21 

Apple  Butter 69 

Atmospheric  Drainage 10,11 

Baldwin 19,20,55 

Belmont 21 

Ben  Davis 20 

Bolts  in  Trees 42 

Borers 77 

Broken  Trees 41 

Carpocapsa  Pomonella 85 

Cellars 63 

Cheap  Trees 22 

Chenango. .... 20 

Chrysobothris  Femorata 83 

Cider 69 

Crabs  21 

Crops  for  Orchard ^..-  25  | 

Crotches  41  | 

CoddUnMoth. 85 

Culture 25,  28,  81 

Distances 14 

Drainage 9,  10 

Duchess  of  Oldenburgh 20 

Dyer 21 

Early  Harvest 20 

Early  Joe 21 

English  Sweet 21 

Esopus  Spitzenburgh 21 

Evaporated  Fruit 68 

Fallawater 20 

Fall  Pippin 21 

Fameuse 20,  21 

Fertilizers 28 

Flat-headed  Borer 83 

Forms  of  Trees 36 

(89) 


Garden  Royal 21 

Girdled  trees 44 

Golden  Russet 20 

Grafting  .-. 45 

Grafting  Wax , 49 

Gravenstein 20,68 

Grimes'  Golden 20 

Hardiness   9,19,55 

Hawley 21 

Hawthoniden 20 

Heading  In 40 

Heads,  High  or  Low 37 

Hubbardston 20,  21,  68 

Hyslop 21 

Insects 75 

Jersey  Sweet 20,  21 

Jonathan 20,21 

Keeping  Fruit 58,62 

Keswick  Codlin 21 

King 20 

Ladder 35 

Lady  Apple 21 

Limber  Twig 20 

Longevity 54 

Lowell 20 

Maiden's  Blush 20 

Mann  20 

Manui-es   28 

Melon  ...21 

Mice  74 

Mother 21 

Mulch 32 

Nickajack 20 

jSorthem  Spy 14,  20,  21 


90 


IKDEX. 


OhloNonpareQ 20 

Oklenburgh 20 

Packing 59 

Peck's  Pleasant 30 

Picking 55 

Planting 13,  16 

Plowing 24 

Pomme  Gris 21 

Porter 20 

Presses 61 

Primate 20 

Productiveness 19 

Profits 66 

Pruning 33 

Rabbit  73 

Red  Astraehan 20 

Red  Canada 20 

Repairing  39 

Rhode  Island  Greening  -14,  20, 

21,38 

Roxbury  Russet 20 

Round-headed  Borer 77 

Russian  Apples 21 

St.  Lawrence 20 

Saperda  Candida 77 

Saperda  Cretata 82 

Scraping  44 

Setting ---  13,  16 

Shiawassee 20,21 

Smith's  Ci<i»'- 20 


Snow  Apple 20 

Sod 31 

Soils 9,20 

Staking 40 

Stark 20 

Summer  Rose 21 

Swaar 21 

Sweet  Bough 20 

Talman  Sweet 20 

Theft 71 

Tillage 25,28,31 

Time  for  Planting 16 

Tompkins  King 14,  20 

Training   39 

Transcendent 21 

Trimming 33 

Twenty  Ounce 30 

Vandevere   30 

Varieties 18 

Vinegar 69 

Wagener 21 

Wash  77 

Wax 49 

Whitewashing 45 

Whitney 21 

Williams'  Favorite 20 

Windbreaks 10 

Yellow  Bellefleur 21 

YeUow  NewtQwa>Pi*ftfe --  21 


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The  Cereals  in  America 

By  Thomas  F.  Hunt,  M.S.,  D.  Agr.  If  you  raise  five 
acres  of  any  kind  of  grain  you  cannot  afford  to  be  without  this 
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crop  treated  is  presented  in  the  light  of  individual  study  of 
the  plant.  If  you  have  this  book  you  have  the  latest  and  best 
that  has  been  written  upon  the  subject.  Illustrated.  450  pages. 
51-2x8   inches.      Cloth $1.75 

The  Potato 

By  Sai:uel  Frazer.  A  reliable  guide  on  the  cultivation  of 
the  potato,  its  development,  manuring  and  fertilizing,  planting, 
tillage,  sprays  and  spraying,  breeding  t.ew  varieties,  harvesting, 
storing,  marketing,  etc.,  etc.  Takei:  all  in  all  it  is  the  most 
complete,  reliable  and  authoritative  work  on  the  potato  ever 
published  in  America.  lllustratf:<l.  200  pages.  5x7  inches. 
Cloth $0.75 


Farm  Grasses  of  the  United  States  of  America 

By  William  Jasper  Spillman.  A  practical  treatise  on 
the  grass  crop,  seeding  and  management  of  meadows  and 
pastures,  description  of  the  best  varieties,  the  seed  and  its 
impurities,  grasses  for  special  conditions,  lawns  and  lawn 
grasses,  etc.,  etc.  In  preparing  this  volume  the  author's  object 
has  been  to  present,  in  connected  form,  the  main  facts  con- 
cerning the  grasses  grown  on  American  farms.  Every  phase 
of  the  subject  is  viewed  from  the  farmer's  standpoint.  Illus- 
trated.    248  pages.     5x7   inches.     Cloth.      .       .       ,       $1.00 


The  Book  of  Corn 

By  Herbert  Myrick,  assisted  by  A.  D.  Shamel,  E.  A. 
Burnett,  Albert  W.  Fulton,  B.  W.  Snow,  and  other  most 
capable  specialists.  A  complete  treatise  on  the  culture, 
marketing  and  uses  of  maize  in  America  and  elsewhere,  for 
farmers,  dealers  and  others.  Illustrated.  372  pages.  5x7 
inches.     Cloth $1.50 


The    Hop  — Its    Culture  and   Care,  Marketing 
and  Manufacture 

By  Herbert  Myrick.  A  practical  handbook  on  the  most 
approved  methods  in  growing,  harvesting,  curing  and  selling 
hops,  and  on  the  use  and  manufacture  of  hops.  The  result  of 
years  of  research  and  observation,  it  is  a  volume  destined  to  be 
an  authority  on  this  crop  for  many  years  to  come.  It  takes  up 
every  detail  from  preparing  the  soil  and  laying  out  the  yard, 
to  curing  and  selling  the  crop.  Every  line  represents  the 
ripest  judgment  and  experience  of  experts.  Size,  5x8;  pages, 
300;  illustrations,  nearly  150;  bound  in  cloth  and  gold;  price, 
postpaid, $i-5<?' 

Tobacco  Leaf 

By  J.  B.  Killeerew  and  Herbert  Myrick.  Its  Culturf 
and  Cure,  Marketing  and  Manufacture.  A  practical  handbook 
on  the  most  approved  methods  in  growing,  harvesting,  curing, 
packing  and  selling  tobacco,  with  an  account  of  the  opera- 
tions in  every  department  of  tobacco  manufacture.  The 
contents  of  this  book  are  based  on  actual  experiments  in  field, 
curing  barn,  packing  house,  factory  and  laboratory.  It  is  the 
only  work  of  the  kind  in  existence,  and  is  destined  to  b?  the 
standard  practical  and  scientific  authority  on  the  whole  sub- 
ject of  tobacco  for  many  years.  506  pages  and  150  or'tjinal 
engravings.    5x7  inches.    Cloth $2.00 


The  Nut  Culturist 

By  Andrew  S.  Fuller.  A  treatise  on  the  propagation, 
planting  and  cultivation  of  nut-bearing  trees  and  shrub: 
adapted  to  the  climate  of  the  United  States,  with  the  scien- 
tific and  comman  names  of  the  fruits  known  in  commerce  as 
edible  or  otherwise  useful  nuts.  Intended  to  aid  the  farmer 
to  increase  his  income  without  adding  to  his  expenses  or 
labor.     Cloth,   i2mo $i-5o 


Cranberry  Culture 

B_v  Joseph  J.  White.  Contents:  Natural  histor3%  history 
of  cultivation,  choice  of  location,  preparing  the  ground,  plant- 
ing the  vines,  management  of  meadows,  flooding,  enemies 
and  difficulties  overcome,  picking,  keeping,  profit  and  loss. 
Illustrated.     132  pages.     5x7  inches.     Cloth.        .       .       $1.00 


Ornamental  Gardening  for  Americans 

By  Elias  a.  Long,  landscape  architect.  A  treatise  on 
beautifying  homes,  rural  districts  and  cemeteries.  A  plain 
and  practical  work  with  numerous  illustrations  and  instruc- 
tions so  plain  that  they  may  be  readily  followed.  Illustrated. 
390  pages.     5x7  inches.     Cloth $1.50 

Grape  Culturist 

By  A.  S.  Fuller.  This  is  one  of  the  very  best  of  works 
on  the  culture  of  the  hardy  grapes,  with  full  directions  for 
all  departments  of  propagation,  culture,  etc.,  with  150  excellent 
engravings,  illustrating  planting,  training,  grafting,  etc. 
282  pages.     5x7  inches.     Cloth $1.50 


Gardening  for  Young-  and  Old 

By  Joseph  H.xrris.  A  work  intended  to  interest  farmers' 
boys  in  farm  gardening,  which  means  a  better  and  more  profit- 
able form  of  agriculture.  The  teachings  are  given  in  the 
familiar  manner  so  well  known  in  the  author's  "  Walks  and 
Talks  on  the  Farm."  Illustrated.  191  pages.  5x7  inches. 
Cloth $1.00 

Money  in  the  Garden 

By  P.  T.  QuiNN.  The  author  gives  in  a  plain,  practical 
style  instructions  on  three  distinct,  although  closely  connected, 
branches  of  gardening — the  kitchen  garden,  market  garden  and 
field  culture,  from  successful  practical  experience  for  a  term 
ot  years.    Illustrated.    268  pages.    5x7  inches.    Cloth.      $1.00 


Bulbs  and  Tuberous-Rooted  Plants 

By  C.  L.  Allen.  A  complete  treatise  on  the  lilstory, 
description,  methods  of  propagation  and  full  directions  for 
the  successful  culture  of  bulbs  in  the  garden,  dwelling  and 
greenhouse.  The  author  of  this  book  has  for  many  years 
made  bulb  growing  a  specialty,  and  is  a  recognized  authority 
on  their  cultivation  and  management.  The  cultural  direc- 
tions are  plainl}'^  stated,  practical  and  to  the  point.  The 
illustrations  which  embellish  this  work  have  been  drawn 
from  nature  and  have  been  engraved  especially  for  this 
book.     312  pages.     5x7   inches.     Cloth.       .       .       .      $1.50 

Fumigation  Methods 

By  Willis  G.  Johnson.  A  timely  up-to-date  book  on 
the  practical  application  of  the  new  methods  for  destroying 
insects  with  hydrocyanic  acid  gas  and  carbon  bisulphid,  the 
most  powerful  insecticides  ever  discovered.  It  is  an  indis- 
pensable book  for  farmers,  fruit  growers,  nurserymen,  garden- 
ers, florists,  millers,  grain  dealers,  transportation  companies, 
college,  and  experiment  station  workers,  etc.  Illustrated.  313 
pages.    5x7  inches.    Cloth $1.00 

Prize  Gardening 

Compiled  by  G.  Burnap  Fiske.  This  unique  book  shows 
how  to  derive  profit,  pleasure  and  health  from  the  garden, 
by  giving  the  actual  experiences  of  the  successful  prize  win- 
ners in  the  American  Agriculturist  garden  contest.  Every 
line  is  from  actual  experience  based  on  real  work.  The  result 
is  a  mine  and  treasure  house  of  garden  practice,  comprising 
the  grand  prize  gardener's  methods,  gardening  for  profit,  farm 
gardens,  the  home  acre,  town  and  city  gardens,  experimental 
gardening,  methods  under  glass,  success  with  specialties,  prize 
flowers  and  fruits,  gardening  by  women,  boys  and  girls,  irriga- 
tion secrets,  etc.,  etc.  Illustrated  from  original  photos.  320 
pages.    5x7  inches.     Cloth $1.00 

Spraying  Crops — Why,  When  and  How 

By  Clarence  M.  Weed,  D.  Sc.  The  present  fourth  edition 
has  been  rewritten  and  reset  throughout  to  bring  it  thoroughly 
up  to  date,  so  that  it  embodies  the  latest  practical  information 
gleaned  by  fruit  growers  and  experiment  station  workers.  So 
much  new  information  has  come  to  light  since  the  third  edition 
was  published  that  this  is  practicallv  a  new  book,  needed  by 
those  who  have  utilized  the  earlier  editions,  as  well  as  by  fruit 
growers  and  farmers  generally.  Illustrated.  ij6  pages.  5x7 
inches.     Cloth.         ..**,,.«•      $0.50 


Successful  Fruit  Culture 

By  Samuel  T.  Maynard.  A  practical  guide  to  the  culti- 
vation and  propagation  of  Fruits,  written  from  tlie  standpoint 
of  the  practical  fruit  grower  wlio  is  striving  to  mal<c  his 
business  profitable  by  growing  the  best  fruit  possible  and  at 
the  least  cost.  It  is  up-to-date  in  every  particular,  and  covers 
the  entire  practice  of  fruit  culture,  harvesting,  storing,  mar- 
keting, forcing,  best  varieties,  etc.,  etc.  It  deals  with  principles 
first  and  with  the  practice  afterwards,  as  the  foundation,  prin- 
ciples of  plant  growth  and  nourishment  must  always  remain 
the  same,  while  practice  will  vary  according  to  the  fruit 
grower's  immediate  conditions  and  environments.  Illustrated. 
26s  pages.     5x7  inches.     Cloth $l.00 

Plums  and  Plum  Culture 

By  F.  A.  Waugh.  A  complete  manual  ror  fruit  gro\/ei.->. 
nurserymen,  farmers  and  gardeners,  on  all  known  varieties 
of  plums  and  their  successful  management.  This  book  marks 
an  epoch  in  the  horticultural  literature  of  America.  It  is  a 
complete  monograph  of  the  plums  cultivated  in  and  indigenous 
to  North  America.  It  will  be  found  indispensable  to  the 
scientist  seeking  the  most  recent  and  authoritative  informa- 
tion concerning  this  group,  to  the  nurseryman  who  wishes  to 
handle  his  varieties  accurately  and  intellingently,  and  to  the 
cultivator  who  would  like  to  grow  plums  successfully.  Illus- 
trated.    391  pages.     5x7  inches.     Cloth.       .       .       .       $1.50 

Fruit  Harvesting,  Storing,  Marketing 

By  F.  A.  Waugii.  A  practical  guide  to  the  picking,  stor- 
ing, shipping  and  marketing  of  fruit.  The  principal  subjects 
covered  are  the  fruit  market,  fruit  picking,  sorting  and  pack- 
ing, the  fruit  storage,  evaporating,  canning,  statistics  of  the 
fruit  trade,  fruit  package  laws,  commission  dealers  and  dealing, 
cold  storage,  etc.,  etc.  No  progressive  fruit  grower  can  afford 
to  be  without  this  most  valuable  book.  Illustrated.  232  pages. 
5x7   inches.     Cloth $1.00 

Systematic  Pomology 

By  F.  A.  Waugh,  professor  of  horticulture  and  landscape 
gardening  in  the  Massachusetts  agricultural  college,  formerly 
of  the  university  of  Vermont.  This  is  the  first  book  in  the 
English  language  which  has  ever  made  the  attempt  at  a  com- 
plete and  comprehensive  treatment  of  systematic  pomology. 
It  presents  clearly  and  in  detail  the  whole  method  by  which 
fruits  are  studied.  The  book  is  suitably  illustrated.  288  pages. 
5x7  inches.    Cloth.        .      , $i.00 


Farmer's  Cyclopedia 
of  Agriculture    j2i    /2J 

tA  Compendium  of  Agiicultural  Science  and  Practice 
on    Farm,    Orchard  and    Garden    Crops,    and    the 

Feeding  and  Diseases  of  Farm  /jnimals      :     ;     ;     ; 

Bp    EARLEY    VERNON    WILCOX,    Ph.D. 
and  CLARENCE   BEAMAN   SMITH,    M.S. 

Associate  tijilors  tit  the  Office  of  Experiment  Stations,   United  States 
Department  of  Agriculture 


THIS  is  a  new,  practical,  and  complete  pres- 
entation of  the  whole  subject  of  agricul- 
ture in  its  broadest  sense.  It  is  designed 
for  the  use  of  agriculturists  who  desire 
up-to-date,  reliable  information  on  all 
matters  pertaining  to  crops  and  stock,  but  more 
particularly  for  the  actual  fanner.  The  volume 
contains 

Detailed  directions  for  the  culture  of  every 

important  field,  orchard,  and  garden  crop 

grown  in  America,  together  with  descriptions  of 
their  chief  insect  pests  and  fungous  diseases,  and 
remedies  for  their  control.  It  contains  an  ac- 
count of  modern  methods  in  feeding  and  handling 
all  farm  stock,  including  poultry.  The  diseases 
which  affect  different  farm  animals  and  poultry 
are  described,  and  the  most  recent  remedies 
suggested  for  controlling  them. 

Ever}'  bit  of  this  vast  mass  of  new  and  useful 
information  is  authoritative,  practical,  and  easily 
found,  and  no  effort  has  been  spared  to  include 
all  desirable  details.  There  are  between  6,000 
and  7.000  topics  covered  in  these  references,  and 
it  Contains  700  royal  8vo  pages  and  nearly  500 
superb  half-tone  and  other  original  illustrations, 
making  the  most  perfect  Cyclopedia  of  Agricul- 
ture ever  attempted. 

Handsomely  bound    in    cloth,  $3.50;    half  morocco 
•     (Verp  sumptuousK  $4,50,  postpaid 


ORANGE  JUDD  COMPANY, 'm^^-"^""-"-"^"^-*^'' 


larquetle  Building,  Chicago,  III. 


->  5 


